Gender and Poverty

Gender & Poverty

Overview of Topics

  • Gender as a System of Social Stratification

  • Gendered Division of Unpaid Household Labor

  • Gendered Division of Paid Labor

What is Gender?

  • Sex: The biological differences between males and females.

  • Gender: The social, cultural, and psychological characteristics and behaviors that a society considers appropriate for men and women.

Gender Stratification

  • Definition:

    • Gender stratification refers to the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between women and men.

    • In various contexts, including family, education, work, and politics, women are generally assigned a lower status compared to men.

What is Sexism?

  • Definition:

    • Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one’s sex.

    • It arises from the ideology that one sex is superior to another.

Men's and Women's Work at Home and at Work (1965-2011)

  • Hours of Work Per Week:

    • Men's Work:

    • Paid Work: Gradual increase from 40 hours to approximately 50 hours.

    • Housework: Significant decrease in housework hours over the years.

    • Women's Work:

    • Paid Work: Steady increase from 30 hours to around 40 hours.

    • Housework: Remained relatively stable in comparison to men’s work.

    • Child Care: Increased hours over the period.

  • Notes:

    • Data includes adults ages 18 to 64, with paid work time including commute time.

    • Source: Pew Research Center analysis and calculations from Sayer (2005).

Parents' Child Care Time (1965-2011)

  • Hours per Week:

    • Fathers and mothers show decreasing differences in child care time reflecting changes over time.

    • In 2011, fathers averaged around 42.6 hours, while mothers averaged approximately 31.9 hours.

  • Employed Parents' Time in Paid Work (2003-2011):

    • Fathers worked more hours compared to mothers, highlighting discrepancies based on parental roles.

    • Source: Pew Research Center analysis of the American Time Use Survey.

Gendered Division of Unpaid Labor

  • Characteristics:

    • Unpaid household labor is often invisible, undervalued, and contributes to the empowerment disparity between genders.

    • Women are still more likely than men to engage in unpaid care work.

  • Dominant and Alternative Mothering Ideology:

    • Discusses varying perspectives on mothering roles, reinforcing the unequal burden of unpaid labor on women.

Roles of Men and Women in U.S. Households

  • Survey Results (Gallup, 2019):

    • Decisions about Furniture and Decorations: 62% women more likely

    • Laundry: 58% women more likely

    • Cleaning the House: 51% women more likely

    • Meal Preparation: 51% women more likely

    • Child Care: 50% both equally likely

    • Grocery Shopping: 45% women more likely

    • Wash Dishes: 42% women more likely

    • Pay Bills: 37% women more likely

    • Family Activities Planning: 52% both equally likely

    • Decisions on Savings/Investments: 50% both equally likely

    • Yard Work: 59% men more likely

    • Car Maintenance: 69% men more likely

Young Men's Household Work Compared to Older Men

  • Domestic Chores Comparison by Age:

    • Younger men (18-34) show a similarity in household responsibilities compared to older men.

Gendered Division of Paid Labor

  • Gender Gap in Wages:

    • Despite increasing participation of women in the workforce over recent decades, a significant pay gap remains.

    • Gender wage gap tends to widen throughout men’s and women’s careers.

Racial Disparities in Gender Wage Gap

  • Black and Hispanic Women:

    • Experience the largest gender wage gaps compared to their white male counterparts.

    • Earnings as a Percentage of White Men's Median Hourly Earnings:

    • 1982:

      • White: 62%

      • Black: 59%

      • Hispanic: 56%

    • 2002:

      • White: 75%

      • Black: 65%

      • Hispanic: 56%

    • 2022:

      • White: 83%

      • Black: 70%

      • Hispanic: 65%

    • Asian Women's Median Hourly Earnings:

      • 50% in 1982, 100% in 2022.

  • Source: Pew Research Center analysis of the Current Population Survey.

Wage Gains for College-Educated Workers

  • Earnings Growth by Gender and Marital Status from Job Changes:

    • Women face a potential marriage penalty affecting earnings growth.

Women's Pay Relative to Men's Pay by Age

  • Median Hourly Earnings:

    • Women's earnings relative to men's decline with age. Starting at ages 25-34, there’s a visible disparity.

    • For instance, in 2022, women age 25-34 average 86% of what their male counterparts earn.

Working Hours for Parents vs. Non-Parents

  • Comparison of Average Weekly Hours Worked:

    • Mothers generally work fewer hours in paid jobs compared to women without children at home.

    • Fathers, conversely, typically work more hours than their male counterparts without children.

Earnings Gap by Motherhood and Education Level

  • Median Hourly Earnings:

    • Women with children and the same educational level as women without children show comparable earnings.

Pay Gap for Women with Bachelor's Degree

  • Similarity of Pay Gap Across Education Levels:

    • Women with a bachelor's degree face pay gaps similar to those without higher educational qualifications.

Sexism in the United States

  • Experiences of Discrimination:

    • Statistics detail women’s experiences with discrimination and harassment in various sectors including healthcare, pay promotions, and higher education.

    • Notably, Native American, Black, and Latina women experience higher rates of reported discrimination compared to White women.

  • Intersectionality of Gender and Sexuality:

    • LGBTQ women report higher instances of sexual harassment and violence compared to their non-LGBTQ counterparts.

Gender Discrimination Experiences

  • Survey results elucidating personal experiences of discrimination among men and women:

    • Women: Top responses include issues in hiring, pay, or promotions, and feeling underestimated in intelligence.

    • Men: Responses predominately focus on hiring or promotion discrimination and assumptions about personality traits based on gender stereotypes.

Views on Gender Equality by Political Affiliation

  • Democrats vs. Republicans:

    • Democrats express a stronger belief that more efforts are needed for gender equality compared to Republicans.

  • Public Perception:

    • Results show substantial partisan gaps on the perceived progress toward gender equality and perceived gender discrimination in society.

Factors Contributing to Gender Inequality

  • Key Factors:

    • Lack of universal family policies.

    • Gender wealth gap persists.

    • Occupational segregation leading to lower-paying jobs.

    • Absence of supportive work-family policies for balancing paid work and caregiving responsibilities.

    • Issues of domestic violence affecting economic stability.

    • Inadequate public supports that are not accessible to women.

References

  • Barth, E., Kerr, S. P., & Olivetti, C. (2019). The dynamics of gender earnings differentials: Evidence from establishment data. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper. doi: 10.3386/w23381

  • Brenan, M. (2020). Women still handle main household tasks in the U.S. Gallup.

  • Dernberger, B. N. & Pepin, J. R. (2020). Gender flexibility, but not equality: Young adults’ division of labor preferences. Sociological Science, 7, 36-57. doi: 10.15195/v7.a2

  • Dow, D. M. (2016). Integrated motherhood: Beyond hegemonic ideologies of motherhood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 78, 180-196. doi: 10.1111/jomf.12264.

  • Glauber, R. (2018). Trends in the motherhood wage penalty and fatherhood wage premium for low, middle, and high earners. Demography, 55 (5), 1663-1680.

Overview of Topics

  • Gender as a System of Social Stratification

  • Gendered Division of Unpaid Household Labor

  • Gendered Division of Paid Labor

What is Gender?

  • Sex: Refers to the biological and physiological differences between males and females, including chromosomes (XX for females, XY for males), hormones (e.g., estrogen, testosterone), reproductive organs, and physical anatomy. These are primarily determined at birth.

  • Gender: Encompasses the socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions, and identities that a society considers appropriate for men and women. Unlike sex, gender is a social and cultural construct that can vary across cultures and evolve over time, influencing an individual's self-perception and interactions.

Gender Stratification

  • Definition: Gender stratification refers to the systematic and unequal distribution of resources, power, wealth, and privilege between women and men within a society.

    • This inequality is manifested in various societal spheres:

      • Family: Unequal division of household labor and decision-making power.

      • Education: Disparities in access to certain fields of study or leadership roles.

      • Work: Wage gaps, occupational segregation, and fewer opportunities for advancement for women.

      • Politics: Underrepresentation of women in leadership positions and legislative bodies.

    • In these contexts, women are generally assigned a lower status and fewer opportunities compared to men, often due to societal norms and expectations.

What is Sexism?

  • Definition: Sexism is prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination directed against a person or group based on their sex, most commonly against women.

    • It arises from the harmful ideology that one sex is inherently superior to another, leading to systemic disadvantages and marginalization. Sexism can be individual (personal beliefs), institutional (policies and practices), or systemic (embedded in cultural norms and structures).

Men's and Women's Work at Home and at Work (1965-2011)

  • Hours of Work Per Week: These trends highlight shifts in gender roles and labor distribution over several decades, though inequalities persist.

    • Men's Work:

      • Paid Work: A gradual increase from approximately 40 hours to around 50 hours per week, possibly reflecting longer workweeks, increased economic pressures, or changing male career expectations.

      • Housework: A significant decrease in hours dedicated to housework, suggesting some shift towards more shared responsibilities or the outsourcing of domestic tasks.

    • Women's Work:

      • Paid Work: A steady increase from about 30 hours to around 40 hours, indicating greater participation of women in the formal workforce due to factors like economic necessity, career aspirations, and societal changes.

      • Housework: Remained relatively stable despite increased hours in paid work, often leading to a