Geo Mocks

LICs/MICs/HICs

Nations with gross national income per capita (below $1,145)/($1,146 to $4,515 AND $4,516 to $14,005)/(above $14,005)

Brandt Line/North-South Divide

Willy Brandt in 1980, visual divide between wealthier north and poorer south, outdated.

Classification

Categorizing countries based on income, development, or other economic means

Stratification

Hierarchical division into layers based on wealth/power/development.

Emerging economies

Rapidly industrializing nations (China, India), transitioning from MIC to HIC status

NICs

Newly industrialized countries, recently transitioned from agragarian to industrial

BRICs

Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa. Major emerging economies

CPE

Centrally planned economy, started controls production and distribution (USSR, N. Korea)

MEDC/LEDC

More/Less economically developed country

1st World/2nd World/3rd World

Cold war-era terms, 1=capitalist HICs, 2=communist, 3=poorer nations

Physical/human factors pop. distribution

Physical = climate, water access, relief, soil fertility
Human = job opportunities, infrastructure, transport, government, policies, etc.

Core/Periphery

Core - powerful & wealthy (urban centers)
Periphery - marginalized, less developed (rural)

GNI & GNI per capita

Gross national income (total income of residents + overseas earning)

Factors determining rich/poor

Social - education, healthcare, inequality
Economic - industrialization
Environmental - climate vulnerability
Political - stability, corruption, governance

China

USA

Population Distribution

Heihe-Tanchong Line: 94% east of line, 6% west of the line (1934 Hu Huanyong)
Population concentrated on east-coast, Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, fertile plains, port and river access
West is barren and unpopulated
Reasons: water access, landlocked, landscape (west is desert), trade, distance from capital city

Population concentrated in east (New York) and west coast (Los Angeles)
Middle west sparsely populated except for few cities, including Chicago, Houston, Dallas, etc.
Reasons: resource access, warmer climate (or harsher winters), job opportunities, Silicon Valley (tech industries), early settlements were east coast

Population Density

2000-4000 people per km² in urban centers (Shanghai 3900 people per km²)
Rural places can have less than 5 people per km² (Tibet 2.3 people per km²)

2000 people km² west California, Los Angeles, Washington
1000 people km² east (New York over 11,000 people km²)
Rural places (Alaska 0.5 people km², Wyoming 2.3 people km²)

Economic development

Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Taiwan most economically developed
West + Gansu, Guangxi, Heilongjiang least economically developed
South-east moderately developed

New York, Chicago, Dallas, San Francisco most economically developed
Vermont, Wyoming, Alaska least developed
Most areas are moderately economically developed

GDP per capita

GDP per capita around $22,000 Shanghai
GDP per capita $7,000 Gansu
Poverty rate 3x higher in the west

GDP per capita around $97,000 New york
Lowest Mississipi $46,000
Appalachia and deep south high poverty rates (15-20%)

Urbanisation

65% are urban population 2023, up 36% from 2000
Government target 75% urban by 2035

80% are urban population, east and west coast
Growth in sun belt cities (Austin, Phoenix) lower taxes

Suburbanisation

Satellite cities: growth in peripheries of megacities (Tianjin near Beijing)
Cheaper housing, less pollution, close proximity to major cities

Satellite cities (Irvine near Los Angeles)

Core

Coastal China plus Beijing, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Chongqing
Centre of commerce, industry, education
Water access (Yangtze river, pearl river delta, sea access)

New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Washington (California, and east coast)
Centre of commerce, industry, education, and trade
Silicon Valley $1.4 trillion GDP

Periphery

West and north, more rural, poorer access to trade and resources
Gobi desert, Taklamakan desert

Rest of the country, Nevada desert, Appalachians, etc.

Megacities (over 10 million pop.)

Plan for over 19 megacities
Economic clusters fosters economic growth (Pearl river delta area 9% GDP)
Beijing - 21.9 million
Shanghai - 24.9 million
Chongqing - 31.9 million
Chongqing, Chengdu, Guangzhou

NO MEGACITIES
New york - 8m
LA - 3m
Chicago - 2m
Houston - 2m
Dallas - 1m
(Bay area 5% US GDP)

Rural to urban migration

Dongguang, zheijang, jiangsu most immigrated into
Sichuan, Chengdu most immigrated out of
Trend to move into cities for better opportunities, separating families
Assimilation issues for migrant workers
Only 36% urban migrants have local Hukou, limiting permanent residency rate (impacting healthcare, education, etc.)

2 million people a year move to cities (Texas, Florida, California)
Assimilation challenges for Latino migrants in agricultural sectors

Urban to rural migration

Chinese new year + national day mass migration
40-day Lunar New year 9 billion domestic trips are expected, 80% by car

Zoom towns (remote workers fleeing high living costs)
Seasonal migration for skiing and other activities

Internally displaced people

floating population - 376 million (2020 consensus)

1.2 million displaces by wildfires and hurricanes
3 million transient workers floating population

Remittances

Rural households rely on $150-300 a month from urban migrants

rural families rely on $200-500 a month from urban migrants
US sends $80 billion in remmittances overseas

Brain-drain

Migration of education elites, 1 million students abroad, 80% stay overseas
Talent concentrates in eastern tech hubs (shenzhen, Hangzhou)
Thousand Talents Plan (recruit overseas talented experts in science and tech)

1 million US students abroad, 40% stay overseas after graduation
Talent concentrates in Ivy Leagues and those cities

Crude birth rate

Annual live births per 1,000 population

Crude death rate

Annual deaths per 1,000 population

Natural increase

Births - Deaths ((CBR – CDR) / 10 = % growth rate)

Total fertility rate

Average children per women in her lifetime

Life expectancy

Average years a newborn is expected to live

Replacement level

TRF needed to maintain population size

Demography

Scientific study of human populations

Demographic transition model

1-Indigenous, 2-sub-Saharan Africa, 3-India, 4-USA, 5-Japan

Dependency ratios

(Young + Old dependents) / economically active x100
LICs high (youth heavy), HICs mid (ageing populations)
The ratio for an HIC usually lies between 50 and 75. The ratio for an LIC is typically higher.

Population pyramids

Graphical representation of age/sex structure

Old dependents

aged 65 and over

Young dependents

aged 14 and under

Economically active

working age population 15-64yo

Causes of migration

Lee’s model (push and pull)
Push factors = unemployment, conflict, disasters, refugee
Pull factors = jobs, education, stability

Types and consequences of forced migration

Types: Refugees/Asylum seekers, IDPs (internally displaced due to disasters or conflict), trafficked people
Consequences: Host - strain on resources/cultural tensions, Origin - brain drain, remittances
117.3 million displaced at the end of 2023

Emigration/immigration

E - leaving on country to move to another
I - become citizens of other countries

UNHCR

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, also known as the UN Refugee Agency.

Niger

China

Japan

Fertility rates

6.6

1.2

1.2

Life expectancy

62

77

85

Population change

3.8%

0.3%

-0.5%

Population pyramid structure

youth heavy

shrinking base

thin base

Dependency Ratio

100% (more youth)

50%

70% (more elderly)

Impacts of youthful/ageing populations

Strain on job creation, high child mortality
Potential demographic dividend

Six pairs of pockets (2 parents, 4 grandparents), labor shortages

Pension system strain, rural depopulation, immigration reforms

Ukraine (political)

Chad (environmental)

Causes

Russia invasion 2022-present, civilians bombed, forced deportations of 20,000+ children to Russia

Lake shrunk 90% since 1960s
2023 drought displaced many people

Consequences on people

Total 11.4m displaced
6.3 million refugees abroad
5.1 million IDPs
Ukraine lost 30% of pre-war population
20% businesses closed

Total 5.3m displaced
5 million IDPs across Nigeria, Niger, Chad and Cameroon
300,000 refugees fled to neighboring countries
11 million food insecure

Consequences on places

Some ukrainian cities are 90% destroyed, $411 billion needed for reconstruction efforts
Poland absorbed 1.5m refugees, strain on housing and schools

Fishing/agriculture collapse
Boko Haram recruits displaced youth
Niger’s Diffa region hosts 300,000 IDPs

Family Size

Members in a household, impacted by TFR, economics, and cultural norms

Sex ratios

males to females in a population (105:100 at birth is typical)

Ageing/Greying

Median population age increasing due to declining fertility and rising life expectancy

Cohabitation

Living together without formal marriage, common in HICs

Breadwinners

Primary income earnes, historically male dominated, but shifting in modern trends

“Traditional” family

Nuclear family structure (2 parents, 2 children), declining in HICs due to diverse household types

Gender imbalance

Skewed sex ratios due to cultural preferences or migration

Sex selective technology

Prenatal screening to favour one sex, or abandoning children in early stages due to their gender

Population pin code

Population division in Americas, Africa, Europe, and asia/australia = 1-1-1-4 or future 1-1-4-5

Anti-natalist policies

Policy reducing birth rates, through education on family planning and distribution of contraception, because they are overpopulated OR because it has a young population.

Pro-natalist policies

Policy increasing TFR, through incentives such as cash rewards, extended maternity/paternity leave, subsidised childcare, education or healthcare, because they have an ageing population OR because they have a shortage of economically active people.

Gender equality policies

international - UN goal 5 Gender Equality
Increase sexual reproductive rights, increasing education, implementing policies
national - japan women economics, workforce inclusion
30% women in leadership roles goal
Reducing gender pay gaps, companies forced to disclose
Highlight female empowerment in textbooks for children to combat traditional gender norms
“Ikumen” campaign to increase male participation (parenting)

Anti trafficking policies

$236 billion worldwide industry, affecting 28 million people
139 goods, 75 countries made by forced and child labour
20.9 million victims, up to $35k made per victim
1 in 3 trafficking cases are children
Reasons: sex (50%), forced labor (38%), organ trafficking, marriage, etc.
International - UN, funds anti trafficking projects in 140+ countries, tracks traffiking patterns, collects data, 178 countries ratified Trafficking protocol (2000)
National - EU, disrupts trafficking networks (700+ victims freed 2023), $35 million allocated to victim support
Local - Blue dragon, rescued 1,300+ victims since 2005 (women and children), works with Vietnamese police

Demographic Dividend

family size down, lifespan up = human capital + economic growth
South Korea Case Study:
Peak dividend period from 1970-2010
Birthrate dropped from 6 (1960) to 2.1 (1983)
working population increased to 70% in 1990
GDP per captia increased $158 (1960) to $12,000 (1997)
Literacy increase to over 99% in 1980s
Female workforce participation increased to 50% 1990
Government policies ‘Two children max’ campaign

Conditions required for DD

Declining fertility rates
Invest in education/human capital skills
Job creation for working-age population
Gender equality (female workforce participation)

China

Japan

Total population past, present, future

1950: 0.55 b
2025: 1.41 b
2050: 1.31 b

1950: 84m
2025: 124m
2050:106m

Ageing population factors

low birth rate: 1.2
high life expectancy: 77 years
gender imbalance: 34m more men

low birth rate: 1.3
high life expectancy: 85 years
30% population over 65

Anti-natalist policies

One child policy prevented over 400m births
Penalties included fines and forced abortions

N/A

Pro-natalist policies

Two/Three child policy (2016/2021), tax breaks, childcare subsidies
Limited impact due to modern norms being smaller/no family

Angel Plan (1994), subsidized daycare
2023 doubled child allowances to $200 a month, limited impact

Shanghai

Social

50+ universities and 40% China’s top hospitals
Cultural hub with miz of traditional and modern influences
High inequality, gini coefficient of 0.58
40% population lacks Hukou, limiting service access

Political

Tested China’s first free-trade zone (2013)
6m+ CCTV cameras under social credit system
Decisions are made in Beijing, limiting local governance

Economical

$700B+ economy (4% china economy)
Home to world’s busiest port (47m TEUs in 2023)
Average home price is $1.2 million, 12x average salary
3m+ migrant workers lack labour protections

Environmental

23% green space, 100% electric buses
Air pollution PM2.5 levels 2x WHO limits
Land subsidence 2.5cm/year due to groundwater overuse

Demographic

300,000 foreign expats
35% of residents will be older than 60 by 2035
118 males per 100 females imbalance

Short wave radiation

Solar radiation (UV & visible light) emitted by sun

Long wave radiation

Infrared radiation emitted by Earth

Albedo

Reflectivity of surface (snow 90%, oceans 6%)

Greenhouse effect

GHGs (CO2, CH4, H2O) trap longwave radiation, warming the Earth

Enhanced greenhouse effect

human-induced increase in GHGs amplifying heat retention, responsible for 1.1C warming since 1850

Open/closed/isolated system

Exchange (or not) from a system to outside factors

Atmosphere processes

(inputs, processes/transfers/stores, outputs)

Atmosphere layers

TSMTE (troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere)

Global energy balance

Equillibrium between incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation (currently unbalanced)

Positive/Negative feedback loop,

Positive - amplifies change (arctic ice melt)
Negative - stabilizes (cloud cover)

‘hothouse’ state

Climate scenario where positive feedback loops push Earth into irreversible warming

emissions

largest emitter - China (total), Qatar (per capita)

International variations in GHGs sources and emissions,

trend where emissions per capita increase with GDP per capita
Energy accounts for 73% emissions
HICs and MICs account for most of emissions, LICs suffer the most consequences
HICs import goods, letting other countries be responsible for emissions

Carbon sinks

Natural (forests, oceans, peats)/artificial systems absorbing CO2. Oceans take 30% human emissions

Paris agreement

2015 treaty limit warming to less than 2C, 195 signatoris, requires updates every 5 years

Milankovitch cycles

Changes in orbital variations: eccentricity (100k years), tilt (41k years), precession/spinning of tilt/axial precession (26k years)

External Forcings

Factors altering earth’s energy balance

Global dimming due to volcanic eruptions

Cooling effect from aerosols (volcanic SO2) reflecting sunlight, decreases 0.5C warming

Methane (CH4) gas release

Earth's atmospheric methane concentration increased 150% since 1750
Methane stays in the atmosphere for 20 years before it decays, but is 84–86 times more effective than carbon dioxide at warming the planet.

Methane sources

Methane sources inlude wetlands, human/livestok, oceans, fossil fuels, landfill/waste, biomass burning

Why methane levels are increasing

Increase fossil fuel production, changing diet (more meat and rice), more waste due to higher population, methane emissions from fresh water, permafrost exposure

Biosphere

System including living organisms (plants and animals)

Climate change impacting biosphere

50% of species face extinction by 2100
Boreal forests move north at 100m/year
70% of reefs threatened at 1.5C warming

Hydrosphere

liquid, vapour, or ice, including: ocean, inland water bodies, and groundwater

Hydropshere changes

Sea levels rising due to water from melting glaciers and ice sheets, thermal expansion of seawater as it warms
If all glaciers melted, sea levels would rise about 80m

Change in ice

Arctic ice sheet shrinking 13% per decade
Greenland lost 5,000 Gt ice since 2002

Change in oceans

Ocean is 30% more acidic than 1750

Atmosphere

Thin layer mixture of gases and particles suspended in the air around the earth (N2, O2, Ar, CO2, and H2O)

Lithosphere

Earth’s outer layer (crust, mantle), affected by permafrost thawing (releasing CO2 and CH4)

Cryosphere

Subset of Hydrosphere consisting of frozen water

Geosphere

Solid Earth: core, mantle, crust, and soil layers

Carbon Cycle

where its present, name given to store, or transfer between stores, what is abbreviation pg, list 5 natural carbon fluxes

Carbon Cycle changes

Stores/sinks: atmosphere, biosphere (plants0, fossil fuels
Fluxes: Photosynthesis, respiration, ocean dissolution

Extreme weather events

heatwaves, storms and flooding, fires
Global cost $313 billion/year

Heatwaves

5x more likely since 1900
2022 EU heatwave, 60,000 deaths, $20 billion losses

Storms

hurricanes 8% more intense per 1C warming
202 Atlantic season, 30 named storms

Flooding

Pakistan flooding 2022, $30 billion damage, 1,700 deaths
Urban flooding increase 50% in Asia since 1980

Wildfires

Australia 2019/2020 46 million acres burned, over $100 billion in losses
California fire season now 75 days longer

Droughts

20 million people at risk of drought horn of Africa
LICs lose 5% GDP/year to droughts

Impact of rising temperatures

1C; 70% reefs die
2C: 200 million more face hunger/starvation
4C: 50% global species extinct

Deciduous

deciduous forests (shedding annually) growing seasons lengthened by 2 weeks

Tundra

Shrinking 20% since 1980

Shift in Sahara

Sahara expanding 10% southward

Shift in tropics

Amazon - 17% deforested = savannization risk

Animal migration pattern changes

Birds migrate less south, livestock dies due to drought/heat, more often, etc.

Link between Climate change and Cacao

Where does Cacao grow? What conditions are needed for Cacao to grow? What specific changes in climatic conditions will impact cacao cultivation? What impact will climate changes have on the location of cacao cultivation? Take a screenshot of the maps showing the limits of cacao cultivation How can cacao farmers adapt to climate change?

Impact of climate change on human health

air pollution: 7 million deaths a year
disease spread: malaria & dengue range expanding, 500 million more people at risk by 2050
environmental refugees: 20million/year displaced since 2008
food supply: increasing food insecurity
heat stress: 250,000 extra deaths/year by 2030

Risk

potential for consequences where something of value is at stake and where the outcome is undetermined

Vulnerability

The chance of being affected.
CAR, DRC, and Haiti highest level of climate vulnerability
Africa highest continental level of climate vulnerability

Impact of climate change

Swiss Alps: loss in business, shorter skiing seasons
Inuit communities: permafrost met disrupts building foundations, limits access to particular places, worsens food storage and collection, makes travelling on thin ice dangerous

Gender based impact

Higher mortality rate for women (due to cultural norms and their child-rearing responsibilities)
Economic barriers (women often don’t work, and have little income to support themselves after a disaster)
When women collect water, they need to travel farther
80% of climate refugees are women

COP

history of climate negotiations
Objectives/Aims of Paris climate agreement Slide 2 - Who signed up? Who didn't? Slide 3 - Successes of Paris Slide 4 - Failures & Problems of Paris (+ focus on Trump administration in 2016, withdrawal in November 2020

UNFCC

Mitigating

reducing climate change

Adaptation

adapting to a life in a changing climate

Carbon capture

Technology that captures CO₂ emissions at their source (e.g., power plants) before they enter the atmosphere.

Carbon offsetting

Compensating for emissions by funding projects that reduce CO₂ elsewhere.

Sequestration

Long-term storage of CO₂ in natural or artificial "sinks."

Afforestation

Planting trees in areas not previously forested to create new carbon sinks.

Geoengineering

Large-scale interventions to alter Earth’s climate systems. (Example spraying aerosols to reflect sunlight)

fossil fuel alternatives

Energy sources replacing coal, oil, and gas to cut emissions (Solar, Nuclear, Wind, Hydro, etc.)

government action

2025 Target: 33% non-fossil energy in primary consumption (up from 15.9% in 2020).
Installed 230 GW solar/wind in 2023 alone (more than EU + US combined).
Renewables now generate ~50% of China’s electricity (2024)
EV makers get $3,000–$5,000 per vehicle;
20% of new cars must be electric by 2025.
60% of Global EVs Sold are Chinese (2023);
Pledge: domestic coal use capped at 4.2B tons/year.
Impact: Coal’s share in energy mix dropped to 55% (2023) from 72% in 2005.
"Green Great Wall": 100 billion trees planted by 2050; forest coverage now 24% (up from 12% in 1980).

corporate strategies net zero

BYD - largest EV manufacturer, surpassing tesla with 3 million EVs sold annually.
Headquater shenzhen
Net zero policies: 100% electric fleet by 2035, invested $30b in EV R&D
100% green manufacturing by 2025, installed 20GW solar panels on factories
Cut factory emissions by 60% since 2020
battery recycling, recycles 99% of lithium, cobalt, nickel from old EV batteries
Reduced mining emissions by 70% per battery
Supply Chain decarbonization, net zero suppliers by 2030, 15% drop in sope 3 emissions
Invests in Mongolian wind farms, offsetting their carbon emissions

civil society responses

mossy earth
Planted over 500,000+ trees in Portugal, Scotland, Ireland
Beavers in the UK to restore wetlands
reef and kelp forest restoration
50,000+ followers
200,000 tons of CO2 removed