Notes on the 1960s: Promises and Turmoil

The 1960s: Promises and Turmoil

  • John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address (Jan 20, 1961)

    • Emphasizes a new generation ready to tackle national issues.
    • Commitment to liberty and global alliances.

  • Overview of the 1960s:

    • Era marked by economic prosperity and significant social issues.
    • Racial strife, Vietnam War, and student radicalism as core themes.
The Election of 1960

  • Political Background:

    • Eisenhower's inability to carry Republican candidates.
    • Democrats maintained Congress despite Eisenhower's popularity.

  • Republican Candidate: Richard Nixon

    • 47 years old, previous Vice President under Eisenhower.
    • Known for standing up to Khrushchev during the "kitchen debate" in Moscow.

  • Democratic Candidate: John F. Kennedy

    • Charismatic 43-year-old senator.
    • Defeated major rivals in the primaries.
    • Chose Lyndon B. Johnson to balance the ticket.

  • Campaign Dynamics:

    • Influential role of televised debates; Kennedy appeared more dynamic than Nixon.
    • Kennedy criticized the Eisenhower administration for economic troubles and a supposed arms race disadvantage.
    • Kennedy's Catholicism influenced some voters; affected his appeal across demographics.

  • Election Results:

    • Kennedy narrowly defeated Nixon by over 100,000 popular votes; won electoral college 303-219.
Kennedy's Domestic Policy

  • Inaugural Address Theme:

    • Kennedy referred to the "New Frontier."

  • Cabinet Composition:

    • Mix of pragmatists (e.g., Robert McNamara) and liberal academics (John Kenneth Galbraith).
    • Robert Kennedy as Attorney General.

  • Domestic Program Struggles:

    • Aimed at education, health care, urban renewal, and civil rights but faced Congressional resistance.
    • Some success in economic policies (dealing with inflation).
Foreign Affairs Strategies

  • Peace Corps (1961):

    • Volunteer program aimed at providing aid to developing countries.

  • Alliance for Progress & Trade Expansion Act (1962):

    • Programs aimed at revitalizing Latin American economies and reducing tariffs.

  • Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961):

    • CIA-backed invasion to overthrow Fidel Castro failed, leading to increased Soviet support for Cuba.

  • Construction of the Berlin Wall (1961):

    • Symbolized Cold War tensions; Kennedy reinforced U.S. commitment to West Berlin.

  • Cuban Missile Crisis (1962):

    • Standoff following U.S. discoveries of Soviet missiles in Cuba; led to direct communication lines between Washington and Moscow and the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty.
Kennedy's Assassination and Legacy

  • Assassination (Nov 22, 1963):

    • Occurred in Dallas, Texas; raised questions about government credibility and sparked various conspiracy theories.
    • Majority of Americans inspired by his message to contribute to society.

  • Historical Interpretation:

    • A mix of idealism and criticism of his Cold War rhetoric; the legacy continued to influence American politics in the following decades.
Lyndon Johnson's Great Society

  • Post-Kennedy Presidency:

    • Johnson's policies aimed at expanding New Deal reforms to address poverty and civil rights.

  • Civil Rights Legislation:

    • Expansion of Kennedy's civil rights bill and tax cuts passed, promoting economic growth.
The Women's Movement

  • Emergence in the 1960s:

    • Influenced by increasing education and the civil rights movement.

  • Betty Friedan's Influence:

    • Her book "The Feminine Mystique" prompted women to pursue careers beyond traditional roles.

  • Legal Advancements:

    • Equal Pay Act (1963) & Civil Rights Act (1964) prohibited gender discrimination.

  • ERA Campaign:

    • Sought to guarantee equal rights; fell short of ratification in the 1970s due to conservative backlash.
The Vietnam War

  • Escalation of U.S. Involvement (1960-1969):

    • Initial minimal involvement grew to 2.7 million troops.
    • Kennedy increased military aid and personnel.
    • Johnson escalated U.S. involvement post-Tonkin Gulf.

  • Controversy and Opposing Views:

    • Division in public opinion; "hawks" supported war, while "doves" sought withdrawal.
    • The Tet Offensive (1968) marked a psychological turning point, impacting perceptions of U.S. success.

  • End of Johnson's Presidency:

    • Johnson announced he would not seek re-election amid rising antiwar sentiment.
The Election of 1968

  • Assassination of Robert Kennedy:

    • Following his strong primary success, highlighted ongoing national turmoil.

  • Three-Way Race:

    • Nixon, Wallace, and Humphrey; reflected public desire for stability amidst chaos.

  • Democratic Convention in Chicago:

    • Tension demonstrated division within the party over Vietnam policy.

  • Election Results:

    • Nixon won significant electoral support, indicating a shift towards conservatism in American politics leading into the 1970s.
Summary of Lessons from Vietnam
  • Key Takeaways:
    • The war exposed failures in understanding the conflict's nature and implications for U.S. foreign policy.
    • Lesson on ensuring domestic support for war efforts as integral to national strategy.