Creative Composition
Creative Writing and Other Forms of Writing
Understanding Creative Writing
Creative Writing
Definition: Writing that does not follow strict style rules — it is mostly fiction, and it is imaginative, metaphoric, or symbolic in nature.
Important details:
Does not adhere to specific style parameters (no fixed "correct" way to write it).
Its purpose is to either entertain, provoke, or captivate the reader.
Tone is subjective (depends on the writer's feelings), and vocabulary is general and evocative (word choices that stir emotion or imagination).
Example: A short story about a robot who secretly writes poetry for the humans it serves — this entertains and provokes thought about what it means to feel.
Overview of the 4 Literary Forms
Fiction
Definition: Imaginary and theoretical writing; it may also refer to theatrical, cinematic, or musical works.
Important details:
Realistic Fiction – events can happen in real life.
Semi-Fiction – a reconstructed real story (based on true events but altered).
Non-Realistic Fiction – events cannot happen in real life.
Example: A story about a transfer student adjusting to a new school (realistic fiction) versus a story about that same student secretly being a shape-shifting dragon (non-realistic fiction).
Drama
Definition: Plays that can be performed for theatre, radio, or television.
Important details:
Written as a script.
Can be read instead of shown/performed.
Example: A radio play script about two siblings arguing over their family's sari-sari store, written entirely in dialogue.
Creative Non-fiction
Definition: Writing that embodies personal and public history using real events.
Important details:
Uses memory, experience, observation, opinion, and research.
Example: An essay about a student's memory of helping their grandmother sell taho every morning before school.
Poetry
Definition: A thought, a scene, or a story told in a concentrated, lyrical arrangement of words.
Important details:
Can be structured (rhyming lines and meter) or freeform.
Example: A four-line poem about the smell of rain on a hot pavement, written without any strict rhyme scheme.
Vignette
Vignette
Definition: A short composition that can stand alone or be part of a longer work. It expresses the typical characteristics of something.
Important details:
Brevity (shortness) is a hallmark of vignettes; they rely on suggestion rather than full explanation.
Fiction vignettes should never exceed 1,000 words.
Example: A 300-word piece describing the five minutes before a student steps on stage for a piano recital — the shaking hands, the squeaky chair, the silence — without explaining the whole backstory.
Uses and Ways to Write a Vignette (Patterson, 2019)
Definition: A set of techniques for crafting an effective vignette.
Important details:
Give a glimpse into a moment in a character's life.
Show something important that isn't vital to the plot.
Create an atmosphere around a place or a character.
Be descriptive.
Use the senses.
Use symbols.
Leave a distinct visual impression.
Example: Describing a mother's hands kneading dough every Sunday morning to create an atmosphere of quiet routine and love, without narrating an entire plot.
Creative Non-Fiction: Truth in Color
Concreteness in Writing
Concreteness in Writing
Definition: Writing that appeals to the senses so readers can vividly picture what is happening.
Important details:
Use Imagery to appeal to the 5 senses.
Imagery must also be heartfelt, compelling, and create scenes and dialogue that keep the story moving.
Example: Instead of writing "the market was busy," a concrete version would describe the shouting vendors, the smell of fried fish balls, and the honking jeepneys.
Creative Nonfiction (CNF)
Creative Nonfiction (CNF)
Definition: A type of prose that employs literary techniques to report on persons, places, and events in the real world. It narrates truth in a literary/artistic manner.
Important details (Characteristics):
Factual – based on truth.
Extensive Research – based on primary and secondary research sources.
Reportage/Reporting – must be able to document events or personal experiences.
Personal Experience and Opinion – writers include their feelings, thoughts, and opinions.
Explanation/Exposition – required to explain the topic to the reader.
Essay Format – written in essay format.
Example: A first-person essay about surviving a typhoon in Davao, blending factual details (flood levels, dates) with the writer's own fear and relief.
Strategies in Writing CNF
Alexander Limberg (2015)
Tell a Memorable Story
Definition: Make the piece stick in the reader's mind by including examples, experiences, and comparisons.
Example: Comparing a breakup to losing signal during a long-distance call — connection cut off without warning.
Bait Your Audience
Definition: Begin with stories, a question, or a funny thought to hook the reader immediately.
Example: Opening an essay with, "Have you ever accidentally liked your crush's three-year-old photo?"
Use Emotional Language
Definition: Use imagery, emotion, metaphors, and personality in your writing.
Example: Describing nervousness as "a swarm of moths, not butterflies, thrashing in my chest."
Say It Simply
Definition: Impress the reader with the story itself, not with overly complicated language.
Example: Writing "I was scared" instead of "I was overtaken by an overwhelming and profound sense of trepidation."
Surprise the Reader
Definition: Use jokes and/or provocative comparisons; be imaginative.
Example: Ending a serious essay about exam stress with an unexpected joke about how even the vending machine seemed to be judging you.
Christina Pantoja-Hidalgo (2003)
Approach
Definition: How a writer handles their subject and the angle they use to present it.
Example: Writing about poverty either from a statistical/analytical angle or from a personal, lived-experience angle.
Point of View (POV)
Definition: The perspective from which the story is told.
Example: Telling a story about a school fire using "I" (first person) versus telling it as an outside observer ("she").
Tone
Definition: Something in the writer's work that indicates a feeling or attitude.
Example: A sarcastic tone when describing a chaotic group project versus a nostalgic tone when describing a childhood home.
Voice
Definition: Similar to tone; the qualities in the text that reveal a particular personality.
Example: A writer who always uses humor and self-deprecating jokes has a distinct comedic voice.
Structure
Definition: The order in which the text is arranged.
Important details (types of structure):
Chronological – linear, as events occurred in time.
Explanation of a Process – step-by-step.
Flashback – begins in the recent past, then moves back to an earlier time.
Parallel – several stories running side-by-side with occasional convergence.
Diary/Logbook – a more personal and "immediate" narrative.
Question-and-Answer – a logical choice for interview stories.
The Frame – a story-within-a-story.
Example: An essay that starts with the writer at a hospital today (present), then flashes back to childhood memories with a parent (flashback structure).
A Strong Beginning
Definition: An introduction that immediately captivates the reader.
Important details:
Title – short, catchy, non-misleading titles attract an audience.
First Paragraph – be creative and captivating; use quotations, questions, or striking statements.
Example: Titling an essay "The Last Text I Never Sent" instead of "My Reflection on Loss."
Rhetorical Techniques
Definition: Methods of rhetoric used to appeal to a particular audience.
Important details:
Examples include definition, comparison and contrast, examples, cause and effect, classification, enumeration, and analogy.
Example: Comparing studying for exams to training for a marathon (analogy) to explain why pacing matters.
Character
Definition: How people are presented in the piece.
Important details:
Can be shown through direct descriptions, action and reaction, how others see them, monologues, and dialogues.
Example: Showing a strict teacher's personality through her sharp one-liners in dialogue rather than simply saying "she was strict."
Concrete and Evocative Details
Definition: Details that are rich and accurate, which evoke memories and responses in the reader.
Example: Mentioning the specific brand of chalk dust smell in an old classroom instead of just saying "it smelled old."
Scene
Definition: A sequence where a character is in some sort of action and/or dialogue.
Important details:
There are summaries and elaborations that provide transition and build suspense.
Example: A scene showing two friends arguing in a canteen, complete with dialogue, gestures, and pauses.
Convincing Ending
Definition: An ending that is the logical conclusion of the narrative.
Important details:
Must leave a sense of satisfaction, completion, and closure.
Example: Ending an essay about grief with the writer finally being able to visit a loved one's grave without crying.
Focus Texts Studied: "So Long, Typhoon" and "No Escape"
Note: Because these are full copyrighted literary works by named authors, the complete texts are not reproduced here. Below is a study summary of the writing strategies each author applied, based on the annotations in the notes.
"So Long, Typhoon" (Chlarine Gianan)
Definition: A personal narrative that uses an extended typhoon metaphor to describe a past relationship.
Important details (strategies observed in this text):
A Strong Beginning (Hidalgo) – opens directly with the metaphor "You are my typhoon."
First Person POV (Hidalgo) – the story is told from "I."
Character through Dialogue (Hidalgo) – uses a remembered quoted promise to reveal the other person's character.
Memorable Story (Limberg) – the whole piece is built around one clear, memorable metaphor.
Emotional Language (Limberg) – heavy use of metaphor and imagery (rain, storm signals, thunder).
Chronological Structure (Hidalgo) – the "storm" of feelings is narrated from beginning to end in order.
Concrete and Evocative Details / Rhetorical Techniques (Hidalgo) – compares her own heartbreak to trees and posts destroyed by a typhoon.
Example (in your own words): Just like the essay compares heartbreak to a typhoon, a student could write their own piece comparing exam stress to a rising flood that eventually recedes once results come out.
"No Escape" (Katrina Stuart Santiago, 2020)
Definition: A reflective essay exploring the contradiction between believing in feminism/Marxism and still living within a consumerist, capitalist society.
Important details (strategies observed in this text):
Bait Your Audience (Limberg) – opens with a provocative contradiction ("the feminist who doesn't tire of love, the Marxist who loves Starbucks").
Concrete and Evocative Details (Hidalgo) – gives specific, real examples (SM, Starbucks, McDonald's) instead of vague statements.
Tone (Hidalgo) – the writer's tone is matter-of-fact, almost cynical.
Rhetorical Techniques (Hidalgo) – uses comparison and contrast between theory and lived daily experience.
Example (in your own words): A similar essay could explore the contradiction of caring about the environment while still buying fast fashion, using specific store names as concrete details.
The Hook, Line, and Sinker in Creative Nonfiction
Personal Narrative
Personal Narrative
Definition: A type of writing most commonly associated with chronology (time order).
Important details:
Uses flashbacks, tense shifts, and summaries of long passages of time, or lengthening of fleeting moments to transform the sense of time.
It is more complex than simply retelling a past incident.
Expository and personal essays employ examples, classification, cause and effect, and compare and contrast.
Example: A personal narrative about a graduation day might slow down and describe one specific handshake in detail, while summarizing the entire ceremony in one sentence.
Examples
Definition: Putting information into context using real cases or instances.
Example: Instead of saying "some students struggle with time management," giving a specific case: "Jill stayed up until 3 AM finishing a project she started that same night."
Classification
Definition: Keeps information and details in order by grouping them.
Example: Sorting types of procrastinators into "last-minute crammers," "perfectionists," and "avoiders."
Cause and Effect
Definition: Used to persuade readers that the writer's argument is solid by showing how one thing leads to another.
Example: Explaining that lack of sleep (cause) led to poor exam performance (effect).
Comparison and Contrast
Definition: Emphasizes the differences or similarities between two things.
Example: Comparing online classes to face-to-face classes in terms of focus and social interaction.
Ways to Begin an Essay
Sabanpan-Yu (2016)
In Media Res
Definition: The writer drops the reader "in the middle of things."
Example: "The glass shattered before I even realized I had thrown it."
Sensory/Scene-Setting
Definition: Uses rich, sensory details that place the reader in the writer's world.
Example: "The classroom smelled like whiteboard markers and instant noodles from lunch."
Dialogue Hook
Definition: The essay starts with a conversation between two people.
Example: "'You're not seriously wearing that,' my mother said, eyebrow raised."
Emotional Hook
Definition: Leads with an intense feeling or emotional truth.
Example: "I have never hated silence as much as I did in that hospital hallway."
Provocative Statement
Definition: An unexpected declaration that intrigues the reader.
Example: "I used to think honesty was overrated."
Zinsser (2016)
A Question
Definition: Beginning with a question the writer aims to answer and elaborate on in the rest of the essay.
Example: "What do you do when the person you trust most starts lying to you?"
A Quotation
Definition: Typically quotes from prominent people and media, which can captivate the reader.
Example: Opening with a paraphrased line from a well-known local proverb about patience.
A Fascinating Fact
Definition: Can radiate intrigue about the essay topic.
Example: "The average Filipino commuter spends over 1,000 hours a year in traffic."
An Anecdote
Definition: Pulls the reader in because they visualize the scene they are reading.
Example: A short retelling of the time the writer got lost on their first solo commute.
Laurie Oliver (2011)
With a List
Definition: Promotes confusion which translates into intrigue.
Example: "A broken umbrella. A missed jeep. A phone at 2% battery. That was the start of the worst — and best — day of my life."
With a Memory/Reminiscence
Definition: Adds emotional value that pulls the reader in.
Example: "I still remember the smell of my lola's kitchen every Sunday afternoon."
With a Scene
Definition: Helps the reader feel engaged by making it seem like they are also in the event happening.
Example: Describing the exact moment the power went out during a storm, step by step.
With a Reflection
Definition: Creates a thought or emotional value to a piece.
Example: "Looking back, I don't think I was ever really afraid of the dark — I was afraid of being alone in it."
With an Assertion
Definition: A provoking statement that catalyzes a strong response.
Example: "Grades do not measure intelligence — they measure obedience."
With a Diagnosis
Definition: A description/diagnosis that helps a reader feel as if they are in the piece itself.
Example: "By the third week of online school, I had developed what I can only call 'screen fatigue.'"
With a General Statement
Definition: A general statement which is then elaborated upon in the rest of the essay.
Example: "Change is never comfortable — but it is always necessary."
A Personal Essay's Middle and Takeaway
Personal Essay
Personal Essay
Definition: A short, autobiographical, nonfiction work with a sense of intimacy in a conversational manner.
Important details (Qualities of a Personal Essay):
Communication Skills – how effective, concise, clear, and correct the writing is.
Critical Thinking Skills – how fresh and imaginative the writer is.
Maturity – whether the writer can apply and interpret the lessons learned from their experience.
Example: An essay reflecting on failing a major exam, showing not just what happened, but what the writer learned about resilience.
How to Get Better at Writing
Authenticity
Definition: The backbone of a compelling story.
Important details:
Readers can put aside or deal with imperfect writing if the content is important or interesting.
Be genuine in your thoughts and emotions; be true to yourself.
Example: Admitting real, imperfect feelings like jealousy toward a sibling instead of writing a "perfect" version of the story.
Narrative Structure
Definition: Chronological structure but with more freedom — the writer can have more leeway with how they construct their sentences.
Important details:
There is a captivating introduction, body paragraphs that are chronological or thematic, and a conclusion that provides a satisfying resolution.
Example: Organizing an essay about learning to swim not by date, but by theme (fear, practice, triumph).
Emotional Impact
Definition: Writing that evokes emotions in readers.
Important details:
Use vivid language and sensory details that paint your experiences and emotions.
This makes readers feel a connection to your essay.
Example: Describing the shaky feeling in your hands before a recital instead of just saying "I was nervous."
Creative Expression
Definition: Personal essays allow writers to experiment and be creative with their piece.
Important details:
One can use metaphors, literary devices, and descriptive language.
Example: Comparing moving to a new city to "starting a book on a page you didn't choose."
What to Consider When Writing
Unity
Definition: Memories are connected to the insight or lesson of the essay.
Example: Every memory shared in an essay about losing a pet should build toward the essay's final insight about grief or letting go.
Order
Definition: Ideas are arranged well.
Example: Presenting events in a logical sequence so the reader isn't confused about what happened first.
Cohesion
Definition: Smoothness in the delivery of thoughts.
Example: Using transition phrases like "after that" or "looking back" to connect paragraphs smoothly.
Conciseness
Definition: Brevity is present; the message is delivered in a few words.
Example: Writing "I panicked" instead of "I found myself in a state of complete and total panic."
Emphasis
Definition: There's a strong focus on the theme, scene, or symbolism.
Example: Repeating the image of a broken clock throughout an essay to emphasize the theme of lost time.
Focus Texts Studied: "My Other Name," "Sh**ty First Drafts," "Maligaya Taxi," and "Beauty"
Note: These are full copyrighted literary works by named authors, so the complete texts are not reproduced here. Below is a study summary of what each text is about and why it matters for this lesson.
"My Other Name" (Gilford Doquila)
Definition: A personal essay/memoir tracing the writer's journey with the Bisaya slur "bayot," from childhood shame to eventual self-acceptance.
Important details:
Demonstrates authenticity — the writer is very honest about painful childhood memories.
Demonstrates narrative structure with more freedom — it moves through different ages (5, 8, college, adulthood) rather than a strict day-by-day account.
Shows a convincing ending/takeaway — the writer reclaims the name that once hurt him as part of his identity.
Example (in your own words): A similar personal essay could trace how a student's relationship with a nickname changed from being teased about it in grade school to embracing it as an adult.
"Sh**ty First Drafts" (Anne Lamott, from Bird by Bird)
Definition: A well-known essay on writing that argues all good writing begins with messy, imperfect first drafts.
Important details:
Demonstrates conciseness and emotional language through humor and self-deprecating honesty.
Reinforces the lesson that a first draft doesn't need to be polished — it just needs to exist so it can be revised later.
Example (in your own words): A student nervous about writing their college essay could remind themselves: "This first version doesn't need to be good — it just needs to be written."
"Maligaya Taxi" (Jewelyn Mansia)
Definition: A personal narrative/memoir about the writer's relationship with her seafarer father, ending with his death during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Important details:
Uses chronological and thematic structure, moving from childhood memories of her father's homecomings to his final illness.
Strong emotional impact through concrete, sensory details (his Punisher shirt, the smell of halo-halo, the hospital cubicle).
Ends with a convincing ending — a bittersweet final goodbye at the airport that mirrors the essay's opening scene.
Example (in your own words): A student could write about a parent's absence due to overseas work, using a recurring symbol (like a specific gift the parent always brings home) to tie the essay together.
"Beauty" (Alice Walker)
Definition: A personal essay/memoir about the writer's relationship with her own appearance after losing sight in one eye from a childhood accident.
Important details:
Uses unity and emphasis — every memory shared connects back to the theme of beauty and self-acceptance.
Uses the refrain "You did not change," they say, repeated throughout to emphasize a central idea.
Shows a strong takeaway/maturity — the essay ends with the writer finally being at peace with her eye, symbolized by the poem "On Sight" and the closing dream sequence.
Example (in your own words): A student could write about how a childhood scar, habit, or trait once caused embarrassment but slowly became a source of self-acceptance.
Autobiographical Narratives and Other Strategies
Autobiography
Autobiography
Definition: An account of one's life; a narrative of major events, narrated by oneself.
Important details:
The narrator imposes their own order on the flow of experience, which gives a false sense of certainty and finality about causation in life.
Types of Autobiography:
Thematic – organized around specific themes/motifs, such as the most valued lesson, biggest downfalls, or challenges.
Religious – built on faith; devotional handbooks with life stories attached to verses.
Intellectual – organized around ideologies and philosophies.
Fictionalized – withholds or changes names, and uses fictional techniques.
Example: A thematic autobiography could be organized entirely around the theme of "learning to say no," using different life stages as examples.
Memoir
Memoir
Definition: A piece about one's life that is not arranged or structured in a chronological order.
Important details:
Can be fragmented or dispersed like a montage of small-scale narratives.
Example: A memoir about grief that jumps between the funeral, a childhood memory, and a recent dream, instead of telling events in order.
Diary
Diary
Definition: A quotidian (day-to-day) record of specific events in the author's life.
Important details:
May include a rundown of the day, observations, feelings, reflections, and searchings of something significant.
Example: "June 5 — Woke up late again. Had a fight with my seatmate over group work. Feeling exhausted but okay."
Journal
Journal
Definition: More intimate than a diary; contains personal details about the author's impressions, feelings, and opinions.
Example: A journal entry that doesn't just record what happened, but explores why the writer felt anxious about a specific conversation.
Reflective Essay
Reflective Essay
Definition: A critical examination of a life experience, with structure and strong coherence.
Important details:
Involves in-depth analysis.
Requires critical thinking and awareness of one's own biases.
Discusses cause and effect.
Includes discussion of thoughts and feelings.
Uses figurative language, word play, and literary touches.
Organized into coherent paragraphs.
Ends with a decision or takeaway.
Example: An essay reflecting on losing a academic competition, analyzing not just sadness but what the loss revealed about the writer's need for external validation.
How to Start Writing CNF (Hidalgo, 2003)
Select a Topic, Select an Audience, and Do Research
Definition: The three basic starting steps for writing creative nonfiction.
Important details:
Select a Topic – choose what real experience or subject to write about.
Select an Audience – decide who the piece is for, which affects tone and detail.
Doing Research – gather facts, memories, or sources to support the piece.
Example: Before writing about a family tradition, a writer might interview relatives (research) and decide whether the essay is for classmates or for a public blog (audience).
Bimodal and Multimodal Presentations of the Personal Essay
Definition of Terms
Bimodal
Definition: Text combined with another media or art form to complete and complement a product.
Example: A personal essay about heartbreak paired with a single photograph of an empty chair.
Multimodal Presentation
Definition: Text combined with two other forms of media or art form to complement and complete a piece.
Example: A personal essay paired with both a photo slideshow and background music.
Intertextuality
Definition: The idea that all works of literature are derived from or influenced by earlier works.
Important details:
Implicit (Latent Intertextuality) – through ideas, symbols, genre, or style, without direct reference.
Explicit (Deliberate Intertextuality) – when there are direct mentions, quotes, or references to another text.
Example: An essay that subtly echoes the structure of a bedtime story (latent) versus an essay that directly quotes a famous line from a novel (deliberate).
Allusion
Allusion
Definition: An implied or indirect reference to a person, event, or thing, or to part of another text.
Important details:
Allusions assume there is a body of knowledge shared by the author and the reader, so the reader understands the reference.
Comes from the Latin word "allusio," meaning "a play on words" or "game," derived from "alludere," meaning "to play around" or "to refer to mockingly."
Can be a straightforward device that enhances the text by adding more meaning, or a more complex device that makes an ironic comment by comparing dissimilar things.
Example: Describing a strict school principal as "the Voldemort of the hallway" without needing to explain who Voldemort is.
Pastiche
Pastiche
Definition: The deliberate borrowing of an artistic or writing style. It respects the original art or writing style.
Example: Writing a short essay that mimics the short, punchy sentence style of a well-known local columnist as a tribute.
Parody
Parody
Definition: An imitation of the style of a particular writer, artist, or genre, with deliberate exaggeration for comic effect. It has a mocking and critical tone.
Example: Writing an exaggerated, comedic version of a strict school memo, poking fun at overly formal language.
Reading Poetry: Definition and Elements
Poetry
Poetry
Definition: The most condensed and concentrated form of literature — a language that says more, and says it more intensely.
Important details:
Communicates significant experiences and allows readers to imaginatively participate in them.
Poetry is concerned with all kinds of experiences.
Example: A single haiku-length poem capturing the exact feeling of waiting for exam results.
Prosody
Definition: The technical study of poetry — how it is seen, and how it breaks down into parts.
Example: Analyzing a poem's rhyme scheme and syllable count to understand how it was constructed.
Rhyme
Rhyme
Definition: The repetition of similar-sounding words at the end of lines in a poem.
Important details:
Perfect Rhyme – the final stressed vowel and all following sounds are identical (e.g., "cat" and "hat").
General Rhyme – phonetic likeness between words:
Syllabic – similar sound to the last syllable but without a stressed vowel.
Imperfect – stressed and unstressed syllables rhyme together.
Assonance/Slant – same vowel sound.
Consonance – same consonant sound.
Alliteration/Head – similar initial consonant sound.
Eye Rhyme – sight/spelling rhymes; same spelling, different sound (final syllables are spelled the same but pronounced differently, e.g., "love" and "move").
Tail – the final syllable of a verse/line.
Internal – a word at the end of a verse rhymes with another word on the same line.
Example: "Light" and "night" (perfect rhyme) versus "love" and "move" (eye rhyme).
Stress
Stress
Definition: Any syllable given emphasis over another.
Important details:
Stressed Syllables – marked with a horizontal line or check.
Unstressed Syllables – marked with a "U."
Example: In the word "poetry," the first syllable ("PO") is stressed, while "e" and "try" are unstressed.
Meter
Meter
Definition: The rhythmical pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a verse or within the line of a poem.
Important details:
Foot – each pair of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Poetic Foot – contains a number of rhythmical units called feet (a recurring pattern of two or three syllables).
Type of Meter
Number of Feet
Monometer
1 foot
Dimeter
2 feet
Trimeter
3 feet
Tetrameter
4 feet
Pentameter
5 feet
Hexameter
6 feet (called an alexandrine when in iambic rhythm)
Heptameter
7 feet
Octameter
8 feet
Five Basic Meters:
Iambic Meter – unstressed + stressed.
Trochaic Meter – stressed + unstressed.
Spondaic Meter – stressed + stressed.
Dactylic Meter – stressed + unstressed + unstressed.
Anapestic Meter – unstressed + stressed + stressed.
Irregularity – avoiding regular rhythm on purpose, which adds interest and emphasis to certain lines.
Example: The word "beCAUSE" follows an iambic pattern (unstressed + stressed).
Line
Line
Definition: A unit of language in poetry. A line is to poetry as a sentence is to fiction, while a stanza is to a poem as a paragraph is to a story.
Example: "The rain falls soft" could be one line of a poem.
Stanza
Stanza
Definition: A series of lines grouped together and separated by an empty line from other stanzas.
Important details (Kinds of Stanza):
Stanza Type
Number of Lines
Couplet
2 lines
Tercet
3 lines
Quatrain
4 lines
Cinquain
5 lines
Sestet/Sexain
6 lines
Septet
7 lines
Octave
8 lines
Line Break – the point where one line ends and another begins; offers dynamism and ambiguity.
Enjambment – a line break placed mid-clause, where the thought in a line does not end at the line break but moves over to the next line.
Example: A quatrain (4-line stanza) describing the four seasons, one line per season.
Metaphor (Introductory)
Metaphor
Definition: Implied ideas expressed through comparison; it carries inherent vagueness and subjectivity.
(See the full breakdown of Metaphor types in "Poetry as Language" below.)
Imagery (Introductory)
Imagery
Definition: Figurative language that appeals to a person's physical senses.
Important details:
Visual (Sight), Auditory (Hearing), Olfactory (Smell), Tactile (Touch), Gustatory (Taste).
(See the full breakdown of Imagery types in "Poetry as Language" below.)
Repetition
Repetition
Definition: The use of the same keyword or phrase throughout the poem, which enhances the poem's ideas or theme.
Example: Repeating the phrase "I remember" at the start of several stanzas to emphasize memory as the poem's focus.
Refrain
Refrain
Definition: Happens when lines are repeated at the end of a stanza.
Example: A poem about heartbreak that ends every stanza with the same line, "and still, I waited."
Sound Devices
Sound Devices
Definition: Techniques poets use to create rhythm and musicality through sound.
Important details:
Alliteration – repeated letter sounds at the stressed part of two or more words.
Repetition – repetition of entire lines or phrases.
Assonance – repeated vowel sounds in the middle of words with different consonant end sounds.
Consonance – alliteration, but occurring anywhere in the words (not just at the start).
Onomatopoeia – creating or using words that imitate sounds.
Parallel Structure – the order of verbs and nouns is repeated.
Example: "The bees buzzed busily" uses alliteration (b-sounds) and onomatopoeia (buzzed).
Voice/Poetic Voice
Voice/Poetic Voice
Definition: Made up of tone, imagery, rhythm, diction, punctuation, and more.
Important details:
Point of View – First (most intimate), Second (intimate), Third (farther/more distant).
Tone – the speaker's attitude or position towards the poem's subject.
Persona – the use of a literary mask. The Latin phrase "dramatis personae" refers to the mask actors wear in classical theater.
Diction – the word choice of the author, vocabulary, and arrangement of words.
Example: A poem written in second person ("you") addressing the reader directly feels more confrontational or intimate than one written in third person.
Poetry as Language: Imagery, Metaphor, and Sound Devices
Imagery
Imagery
Definition: Engages the reader with a world of experience in the form of sense impressions — language that appeals to the senses.
Important details:
Vivid writing contains concreteness (there is an image that is sensed), significance (the image suggests an abstraction, generalization, or judgement), and detail (focus and specificity).
Types of Imagery:
Visual Imagery – paints a picture with details we can see in our heads, using colors, shapes, sizes, textures, and light interaction.
Auditory Imagery – creates sounds and noises in the mind, such as whispers, music, noises, and silence.
Olfactory Imagery – describes smells and fragrances, and anything else the nose can detect.
Gustatory Imagery – describes tastes and sensations on the tongue.
Tactile Imagery – describes textures and sensations on the skin.
Example: "The sour tang of green mangoes dipped in bagoong" appeals to both gustatory and olfactory imagery.
Metaphor
Metaphor
Definition: Adds color and emphasis through comparison without using the words "like" or "as." Metaphors are figurative expressions.
Important details:
Metaphors give fresh imagery by taking familiar things and presenting them in a new light.
They give emotional impact, evoking strong emotions and creating deeper understanding.
A well-chosen metaphor gives compactness by packing a lot of meaning into short phrases.
Metaphors stretched over several lines can add depth and complexity.
Simple Metaphor – a basic comparison between two things.
Extended Metaphor – developed over several lines in a poem, making a sustained comparison.
Implied Metaphor – the comparison is not directly stated.
Additional Information: Symbolism uses things to represent abstract ideas or emotions, taps into universal experiences, and allows ambiguity and interpretation. Metaphor creates fresh comparisons, creates a sense of surprise and delight, and shows rather than tells.
Example: "Her silence was a locked door" is a simple metaphor; if the poem continued describing keys, hinges, and knocking throughout several stanzas, it would become an extended metaphor.
Tone
Tone
Definition: Described as the "mood" of reading the poem — the poet's attitude towards the poem's speaker, reader, and subject matter, which creates the poem's atmosphere.
Important details:
Tone is closely related to mood and voice, as both give insight into the poem's tone.
Example: A poem about rain could have a gloomy tone (grief) or a playful tone (childhood nostalgia), depending on word choice.
Poetry as Concept and Theme
Theme
Theme
Definition: The central idea — the bigger context the writer presents in the poem. Themes relate to struggles, issues, and concepts that people encounter.
Important details:
Universal Themes – broad topics, such as love, loss, hope, freedom, and death.
Specific Theme – specialized, deeper topics, such as the importance of addiction or the dangers of addiction.
Additional Information: The topic is the subject matter of the poem, while the theme is what the poet wants to say about that subject matter.
Themes provide focus, giving the poem direction and purpose.
Themes create depth, as layers of meaning emerge as the reader explores the theme.
Themes evoke emotions, as they connect to human experiences.
Poems with strong themes can encourage discussions and debates about their meaning.
Steps in Finding a Poem's Theme:
Consider the poem's title.
Analyze recurring images and symbols.
Pay attention to the tone and mood.
Examine the speaker's emotions and actions.
Example: A poem's topic might be "a broken clock," but its theme could be "the impossibility of stopping time" or "the fear of growing old."
Fixed Forms and Free Verse
Fixed Form
Fixed Form
Definition: A term generally used to call all poems that follow a set structure.
Important details:
Examples include Sonnet, Villanelle, Sestina, Epigram, Pantoum, Epitaph, Haiku, Tanka, and Limerick.
Structure is often based on rhyme and meter, but can also be based on syllabics, number of syllables in a line, or a repetition of words/phrases at the end of the line.
Example: A Shakespearean sonnet must always have exactly 14 lines, no more, no less.
Free Verse
Free Verse
Definition: Poems that do not fall under a structure or a fixed form.
Example: A poem about heartbreak with lines of varying, unpredictable lengths and no rhyme scheme.
Form in Poetry
Lyric Poetry
Definition: A poem with one speaker who expresses strong thoughts and feelings.
Example: A short poem about a speaker's private grief over a lost friendship.
Narrative Poem
Definition: A poem that tells a story; its structure resembles the plot line of a story.
Example: A poem retelling the legend of Maria Makiling from beginning to end.
Descriptive Poem
Definition: Describes the world that surrounds the speaker, using elaborate imagery and adjectives.
Example: A poem describing every detail of a sunset over Davao Gulf.
Didactic Poem
Definition: Poetry that instructs, containing a clear moral message or purpose to convey to its readers.
Example: A poem teaching readers to value their elders through a short parable-like story.
Fixed Forms or Poetic Traditions
Sonnet
Definition: A lyric poem consisting of 14 lines, usually written in iambic pentameter.
Important details:
Italian (Petrarchan) Sonnet – consists of an Octave (8 lines) and a Sestet (6 lines); divides thoughts into two parts (Argument and Conclusion).
Shakespearean Sonnet – three Quatrains (4 lines each) and a concluding Couplet (2 lines); the final couplet serves as the summary.
Example: A Shakespearean sonnet about the fleetingness of youth, ending with a two-line couplet that sums up the poem's message.
Epigram
Definition: A short text written in memory of a person, usually engraved on their tombstone.
Example: "Here lies a teacher who never stopped learning."
Pantoum
Definition: A poetic form originating in 15th-century Malaysia, made up of two rhyming couplets.
Important details:
A Modern Pantoum can be any length, composed of four-line stanzas, where the second and fourth lines of one stanza become the first and third lines of the next stanza. The last line is often the same as the first.
Example: A pantoum about waiting for a loved one to come home, where key lines repeat and shift meaning as the poem progresses.
Villanelle
Definition: A 19-line poem with two repeating rhymes and refrains.
Important details:
Made up of five Tercets followed by a Quatrain.
The first and third lines of the opening tercet are repeated alternately in the last lines of the succeeding stanzas.
In the final stanza, the refrain serves as the poem's two concluding lines.
Example: A villanelle about not being able to let go of a memory, with the repeated line "I still remember how the light fell then."
Tanka
Definition: A Japanese poetic form with 5 lines, following a syllabic pattern of 5-7-5-7-7.
Example: A short tanka describing the first rain of the school year.
Limerick (British)
Definition: A very structured, usually humorous poem.
Important details:
Composed of five lines (cinquain) with an AABA rhyming pattern, in anapestic meter (weak, weak, strong).
Three feet in lines 1, 2, and 5; two feet in lines 3 and 4.
Example: A silly five-line poem about a cat who refuses to eat anything but rice.
Free Verse/Contemporary Forms of Poetry
Experimental Poetry
Definition: Poetry that makes a special point of innovation.
Example: A poem written entirely using only text-message abbreviations.
Conceptual Poetry
Definition: An early-21st-century literary movement described as "uncreative writing" — process-oriented and non-expressive, mixing other art forms and traditions.
Important details:
Blackout Poetry – a type of conceptual poetry made by blacking out words from an existing text, leaving only selected words to form a new poem.
Example: Taking a page from an old newspaper and blacking out all but a few words to form a new, unexpected poem.
Concrete Poem
Definition: A poem with visual display and spatial prosody; it foregrounds the visual configuration and pushes the pictorial boundaries of poetry.
Important details:
Pattern Poetry – written with a pattern or design that enhances the poem.
Typographic Poetry – uses different fonts, sizes, and styles to create visual impact.
Shape Poem – creates a shape often aligned with a central metaphor.
Example: A poem about a falling leaf, arranged on the page in the shape of a leaf.
Acrostic Poem
Definition: A poem where the first letter of each line spells a word relevant to the poem's subject, playing with hidden messages and meanings.
Example: A poem about "HOPE" where each line begins with H, O, P, and E respectively.
Hybrid Forms
Verse Drama
Definition: A closet drama written in verse, meant to be read rather than performed.
Important details (may include):
Many soliloquies (speeches addressed to oneself, suggesting reflection and meditation).
"Unstageable" settings, such as vast geographical spaces.
Shocking content.
Allusions to previous dramatists, such as Shakespeare or Greek tragedians.
Example: A verse drama depicting a king's internal monologue while overlooking an entire kingdom from a mountain that could never be shown on an actual stage.
Verse Novel
Definition: A long poem that encompasses the scope of a novel but is written in verse/meter.
Important details:
Tells a story, features a broad scope of characters, and includes "novelistic" topics.
Concentrates specifically on questions of form, while also relating a story and commenting on the novel as a form and poetry as a tradition.
Example: A verse novel following a family across three generations, written entirely in rhymed stanzas.
Formless Forms
Definition: Poems arranged according to content and rhetoric; they do not use rules of form, meter, rhythm, or any aspect of prosody.
Important details:
Line lengths vary, grouped irregularly, and occur according to content.
Poetry is conscious of its arrangement on the page.
Rhythm and sound patterning provide coherence but are not replicated throughout the poem.
Rhyme is absent; natural stress patterns of speech are maintained as much as possible.
Example: A poem where line breaks follow the writer's natural breathing pattern rather than any fixed rule.
Prose Poetry
Definition: Poetry that appears as prose on the page, but is characterized by rhythm and figurative language.
Important details:
Densely compact, pronouncedly rhythmic, and highly sonorous.
Example: A short paragraph-style poem about missing someone, written without line breaks but full of rhythm and imagery.
Focus Texts Studied: Poetry Examples
Note: These are full copyrighted poems by named authors, so the complete texts are not reproduced here. Below is a study summary connecting each poem to the lesson.
"Introduction to Poetry" (Billy Collins)
Definition: A poem about how readers/students often over-analyze poetry instead of simply experiencing it.
Important details (Interpretation from the notes):
The poem explores the often rigid and forceful approach to poetry analysis, in contrast to a more exploratory and open-minded engagement with a poem.
The speaker implies a gentler, more explorative approach, critiquing forceful and reductive methods of analysis that strip poetry of its beauty and complexity.
Example (in your own words): A student might reflect that instead of immediately looking for a "hidden meaning," they could first simply notice how a poem makes them feel.
"Ars Poetica" (Archibald MacLeish)
Definition: A poem about what poetry itself should be like.
Important details (Interpretation from the notes):
Presents a vision of poetry as an art form that should be experienced rather than interpreted.
The speaker emphasizes a timeless, sensory, and emotional approach to poetry, highlighting its ability to evoke rather than explain.
Example (in your own words): This connects to the idea from "Introduction to Poetry" — both poems argue that poetry should be felt, not dissected.
"Sonnet 1" (Jose Garcia Villa)
Definition: A sonnet describing the qualities a poem must have.
Important details (Interpretation from the notes):
Articulates a vision of poetry that combines enchantment, musicality, and depth.
Through vivid metaphors, the speaker portrays a poem as an entity that embodies both lightness and intensity, wisdom and humility.
Suggests that poetry should capture beauty and mystery, revealing its truths subtly and evocatively.
Example (in your own words): This poem could be used as a checklist — a good poem should feel musical, hold both softness and power, and reveal its meaning gradually.
"Parent's Pantoum" (Carolyn Kizer) — example of the Pantoum form
Definition: A poem about the shifting, humorous role reversal between aging parents and their now-grown children.
Example (in your own words): This poem is a good model for how a Pantoum's repeated lines can shift in meaning as the stanzas progress — the same line can sound playful in one stanza and bittersweet in another.
"One Art" (Elizabeth Bishop) — example of the Villanelle form
Definition: A poem about loss, using the repeated refrain "The art of losing isn't hard to master."
Example (in your own words): This poem shows how a villanelle's repeated refrain can build emotional weight — the line means something different by the end than it did at the start.
"Prometheus Unbound" (Jose F. Lacaba) — example of an Acrostic Poem
Definition: A poem referencing the Greek myth of Prometheus, who defied the gods by giving fire to humanity.
Example (in your own words): This poem shows how an acrostic can carry a strong theme (defiance, resistance) while still spelling out a hidden word.
"An Open Letter to Tito (Yes, You Know Which One)" (Adeva Jane Esparrago-Kalidas)
Definition: A free verse poem addressing victim-blaming and rape culture directly, in the form of a letter.
Example (in your own words): This poem demonstrates how free verse and repetition (the repeated word "Tito") can be used to build righteous anger and urgency without needing rhyme or meter.
"Alunsina Takes a Walk in the Rain" (Conchitina Cruz) — example of a Prose Poem
Definition: A poem written as prose paragraphs, referencing the Filipino myth of Alunsina, the goddess who left her home in the sky in anger.
Example (in your own words): This poem shows how a prose poem can still feel rhythmic and figurative even without line breaks, blending myth with a modern, personal voice.
Ethical Poetry Writing: Gen AI, Bimodality & Multimodality, Intertextuality
Bimodal Poetry
Bimodal Poetry
Definition: A poem combined with one other medium or art form that complements and strengthens the poem.
Important details (Ways to do a Bimodal Poem):
Allusions – e.g., writing a poem in the voice of a painting the writer returns to obsessively; writing a poem that alludes to the structure of a chosen piece of music; writing an elegy that alludes to a mythological figure; composing a poem as a caption to a family photograph.
Pastiche – e.g., imitating the layout of a Dickinson poem; writing a poem that pastiches a film genre's visual grammar; composing a "recipe poem" that imitates cookbook prose.
Intertextuality – e.g., taking a canon poem and writing one entirely in its "negative space" (what it left unsaid); writing a poem in dialogue with a song lyric; using a news headline as the first line.
Gen AI Use – e.g., asking AI to write a poem about your hometown, then revising it in your own voice; generating multiple versions of the same image prompt and writing a stanza responding to each; feeding AI an old journal entry and using its output as a found-text poem to annotate in verse.
Example: Pairing a short poem about loneliness with a single photograph of an empty school hallway.
Multimodal Poetry
Multimodal Poetry
Definition: A poem combined with two or more media or art forms that create a richer poetic experience.
Important details (Ways to do a Multimodal Poem):
Allusions – e.g., writing a poem as a hypertext where each stanza links to a different allusion; composing a video poem that layers spoken words over archival footage; building a poem as a slide deck, each slide showing a single image and line.
Pastiche – e.g., writing a poem that imitates the format of a Wikipedia article; composing a "thread poem" using a social media format; creating a zine-poem that pastiches a certain genre magazine.
Intertextuality – e.g., assembling a collage poem; writing a poem scored to a playlist; making a "map poem."
Gen AI Use – e.g., conducting a full conversation with AI about loss or longing and shaping the exchange into a poem; using AI to generate metaphors for something hard to name; co-writing a poem with AI using alternating lines; asking AI to translate a poem to another language and back to English to see how meaning shifts.
Example: A poem about missing home paired with both a personal photo and a short instrumental audio clip.
Intertextuality (Expanded)
Intertextuality
Definition: Every literary creation is a descendant of, or shaped by, previous texts.
Important details:
Latent (Implicit) – when there are subtle echoes of ideas, symbols, or stylistic textures from earlier works.
Deliberate (Explicit) – when a writer explicitly integrates direct citations or names a source text. Authors use this strategy for diverse purposes: to signal thematic undercurrents, to evoke humor, or to reinterpret familiar narratives.
Example: A poem that subtly echoes the imagery of a well-known folk song (latent) versus a poem that directly names and quotes that song (deliberate).
Allusion (Expanded)
Allusion
Definition: An indirect or implied gesture toward a specific entity, historical event, or another creative work.
Important details:
Etymologically rooted in the Latin "allusio" (a "game" or "play on words"), it suggests a mocking or playful reference to an external reality.
Allusions can function as ironic commentaries, or reveal the hidden biases and assumptions embedded within a particular era.
Example: Calling a controlling character "a modern-day Big Brother" without needing to explain the reference.
Pastiche (Expanded)
Pastiche
Definition: A conscious adoption of another creator's aesthetic or linguistic signature.
Important details:
It is done with respect, or as an act of homage — unlike parody, which mocks.
Example: Writing a poem that closely follows the short, dash-punctuated style of Emily Dickinson as a tribute to her work.