Civic virtue vs. private interest after the war and the 1780s crises
The old republican belief that civic virtue would sustain popular liberty waned
Washington’s sober view: "the few… who act upon Principles of disinterestedness are, comparatively speaking, no more than a drop in the Ocean."
The Constitution reflected a shift: interest, not virtue, shapes most people's behavior most of the time
Public life would feature the clash of diverse interest groups; the national government must manage this dynamic
Federalists’ solution: national government as an impartial umpire
Madison and others didn’t believe competition among private interests would automatically foster the public welfare
The national government should act as a disinterested and dispassionate umpire in disputes between different passions and interests in the State
A large republic, with millions of citizens, would yield more of that scarce resource: disinterested gentlemen dedicated to the public good
Such gentlemen, whose enlightened views and virtuous sentiments, render them superior to local prejudices, would fill the small number of national offices: the idea of elites informed by virtue guiding national policy
Anti-Federalists’ counterpoint
Anti-Federalists argued common people were more virtuous than elites thought; gentlemen were more self-interested than Federalists admitted
Critique: lawyers, men of learning, and moneyed men would accrue power and wealth and dominate ordinary folks
They favored representation from every social class and occupational group, not a government controlled by a disinterested elite
Ratification and political fear
The narrow majorities for ratification reflected ongoing fears that states were surrendering too much power to a central government
Patrick Henry became a leading Anti-Federalist figure, declining to attend the Constitutional Convention in 1787
Henry’s famous line: he refused to attend and said he "smelt a rat"; he asserted, "I am not a Virginian, but an American."
Henry’s conviction that sovereignty should remain with the states would haunt the Union for decades
CHAPTER SUMMARY: postwar constitutional misalignments and the move toward a national framework
Leading Americans began to rethink federalism as the postrevolutionary period revealed weaknesses in both state and national governments
For about a decade after independence, revolutionaries were more focused on organizing 13 separate state republics than on creating a single national republic
The Articles of Confederation created a national legislature but gave states control over the purse and virtually all formal lawmaking and enforcement powers
Westward expansion produced both international tensions (with Britain and Spain) and internal tensions (how to democratize state legislatures)
Ordinary Americans began to organize workers; women pressed for greater political, legal, and educational opportunities; religious dissenters called for disestablishment
Mid-1780s crisis: controversy over the Jay–Gardoqui Treaty and Shays’s Rebellion highlighted the fragility of the Confederation
The Constitutional Convention of 1787 and the birth of a national republic
The Convention produced an entirely new frame of government that established a truly national republic
Separation of powers established among three branches: judiciary, a bicameral legislature, and a strong executive
The new structure aimed to curb factional excess and balance competing interests within a large polity
Anti-Federalist concession and the Bill of Rights
Anti-Federalists softened objections when promised a Bill of Rights after ratification
The Bill of Rights was incorporated into the Constitution during ratification debates to protect individual liberties against potential centralized tyranny
Key terms and concepts to recall
Federalists: proponents of a strong national government to manage competing interests and serve the public good
Anti-Federalists: opponents who feared centralized power and favored retention of sovereignty by the states
Disinterested umpire: the idea that a large republic could produce leaders who act for the common good rather than private advantage
Separation of powers: framework separating judicial, legislative, and executive powers to prevent abuse and encourage balance
Bicameral legislature: two-house Congress as part of the new national framework
Bill of Rights: first amendments promised to and adopted to protect individual rights
Important dates and figures to remember
Constitutional Convention: 1787
Jay–Gardoqui Treaty crisis: mid-1780s
Shays’s Rebellion: mid-1780s
Patrick Henry: notable Anti-Federalist opposition leader
Connections to broader themes
Transition from a loose confederation of states to a unified national republic
Tensions between virtue and interest in political theory and practice
Real-world implications for governance: how to balance local autonomy with national unity, and how to guard against the tyranny of the majority or elites
Ethical and practical considerations: governance legitimacy, representation, rights protection, and the role of representative elites in public decision-making