AP World History Flashcards

1200s-1450s: TIMBER - Unit 1: The Global Tapestry

  • TIMBER Acronym:

    • T - Trade (Sand/Trans-Saharan, Silk, & Sea/Indian Ocean)

    • I - Islam

    • M - Mongols, Mali, and Maya

    • B - Byzantines & Buddhism

    • E - European Feudalism

    • R - Regional Connection & Diffusion

1.1 Developments in East Asia

  • Major power: China (Song Dynasty)

  • Confucianism → neo-Confucianism (influenced by Buddhist and Daoist philosophical ideas)

  • The revival of Confucianism demonstrates a historical continuity between ancient China and the Song period, but it also illustrates innovation

  • Human society was hierarchical by nature: unequal relationships

  • Filial piety: Honoring one’s ancestors/parents

  • Women in the Song Dynasty: subordinate, no remarriage, foot-binding

  • Imperial bureaucracy

    • Bureaucracy: governmental entity that carries out the will of the emperor

    • Civil service examination (increased competency, officials appointed by merit)

  • Korea maintained a tributary relationship with China, though was independent politically

    • Learned from China

      • Civil service exam

      • Adopted Confucian principles, organized family structure

    • Elites marginalized role of women even further than China, but no foot binding

  • Heian Japan was influenced despite an ocean barrier, but all influence was voluntary and selective

    • Imperial bureaucracy

    • Buddhism in elites

    • Writing system

  • Vietnam also had a tributary system with China

    • Elite members adopted Confucianism, Buddhism, Chinese literacy techniques, and the civil service examination

    • Women were not as marginalized as in China i.e. female deities

1.2 Developments in Dar-al-Islam

  • Buddhism: belief system from South Asia

    • Four Noble Truths

      • Life is suffering

      • We suffer because we crave

      • We cease suffering when we cease craving

      • The eightfold path leads to the cessation of suffering and craving

      • Outlines principles/practices that a Buddhist must follow

        • Moral lifestyle, practice of meditation

    • Theravada Buddhism originated in Sri Lanka, similar to the original Buddhism in its emphasis on escaping the cycle of birth and death

      • Practice restricted to monks; limited availability

    • Mahayana Buddhism emphasized that Buddhist teachings were available to all, not just a select few

      • Emphasized compassion, made Buddha into a god/object of devotion

      • Spread to much of Asia

    • Tibetan Buddhism emphasized more mystical practices

      • Lying prostrate, elaborate imaginings of deities

    • Chan Buddhism: Distinctly Chinese Buddhism

  • China’s economy was booming, ever since the Tang Dynasty (dynasty before the Song)

    • Commercialization of economy: China produced more goods than needed, then sold on the world market

      • Paper money

      • Credit/promissory notes (flying money)

    • Iron and steel production

    • Agricultural innovations

      • Champa rice came to China via Vietnam

        • Drought resistance, harvestable 2x a year

        • Led to population explosion; China was the most populous country in the world at the time

    • Transportation innovation

      • Grand canal: linked Yellow and Yangtze rivers → cheaper trade

      • Magnetic compass improved water navigation

      • Shipbuilding: Chinese junks with stern-mounted rudders

  • 3 major religions: ALL MONOTHEISTIC

    • Judaism

      • Originated in the Middle East

      • The original religion from which Christianity and Islam arose from

    • Christianity

      • Established by the Jewish prophet Jesus Christ

1.3 State Building in South/Southeast Asia

  • Islam

    • Founded by the prophet Muhammad in the Arabian peninsula

    • Salvation would be found in righteous actions (almsgiving, prayer, fasting)

    • Spread through the Middle East and North Africa

    • Dar-al-Islam: House of Islam

    • Muhammad was a merchant; promoted trading, became big in the Islamic world (unlike Christianity)

  • New empires

    • Abbasid Caliphate: founded 700s, fragmenting by 1200s

      • Arabs, in power during the Golden Age of Islam (advancements in tech)

      • Replaced the Umayyad Caliphate

    • Change: As the Arab Muslim empires (Abbasid) declined, Turkic peoples established new Muslim empires in their place

      • Seljuk Empire: central Asians originally brought in by the Abbasid Caliphate as warriors

      • Mamluk Sultanate: Egypt, enslaved Turkic peoples brought by Saladin (Arab sultanate) that took power after he died

      • Delhi Sultanate: Turks invaded and established a Muslim state in North India; ruled over the Indian peoples for 300 years

        • Continuities in Turkic rule: Military in charge of administration, Sharia law (from Quran)

        • Expanded through military force, merchant activity, and missionaries

        • North Africa was ruled by Muslims

        • The Mali Empire converted to Islam

      • Sufism was a new form of Islam that emphasized mystical experience, available to anyone regardless of class/gender (disapproved by Islamic scholars, but spread by Sufis)

  • Innovations and transfers

    • Nasir al-Din al-Tusi: Math, invented trigonometry for astronomy

    • House of Wisdom in Baghdad: Scholars came to study religion and natural sciences, preserved Greek moral/natural philosophy (i.e. Plato) by translating it to Arabic

  • 3 major religions

    • Hinduism: polytheistic, ethnic religion dominant in India

      • Goal is for individuals to reunite their souls to the world soul (Brahman)

      • Takes a long time, many lives: reincarnation

      • Provided the conditions for a unified culture in India: 5-tiered caste system

        • Hard to change social status, but you could be reincarnated into a better caste if you were good in your lifetime

      • Change: Bhakti movement

        • Encouraged believers to worship one particular god in the Hindu pantheon of gods

        • Rejected the hierarchy of Hinduism

        • Encouraged spiritual experiences to all people regardless of social status (like Sufis)

    • Buddhism: founded in India, shared things with Hinduism (reincarnation, dissolve into universe)

      • Emphasized equality: against caste system

      • More friendly to conversion: universalizing religion

      • Lost popularity in South Asia by 1200, spread elsewhere (and changed)

    • Islam: Delhi Sultanate

      • Became the religion of the elite as leaders of the Sultanate were Muslims

      • The Sultanate was unable to impose Islam on all of India

      • Change: Sufism

  • Kingdoms

    • South Asia (India)

      • Delhi Sultanate

      • The Rajput Kingdoms were a collection of rival/warring Hindu kingdoms ruling long before the Delhi Sultanate

        • Many conquered by Muslims, other remained independent

      • The Vijayanagara Empire, established in the 1300s, was a Hindu rival empire to the Delhi Sultanate

        • Created by Hindu-converted Muslims who reverted back to Hinduism after sent to the south for empire-building by the Delhi Sultanate

    • Southeast Asia

      • The Srivijaya Empire (sea-based, 600s-1000s) was a Buddhist state influenced by Indian Hindu culture

        • Controlled the strait of Malacca → rulers got rich by taxing merchant ships

      • The Majapahit Empire (sea-based) on Java was a Hindu kingdom influenced by Buddhism

        • Created a tributary system among the states in the region to get rich

      • The Sinhala Dynasties (land-based) was a Buddhist state off the coast of India

      • The Khmer Empire (land-based) was a rich empire established by Hindus who then converted to Buddhism

        • Syncretism: blending of religions

        • Angkor Wat was built to be the biggest Hindu temple in existence, but when leaders converted to Buddhism, they added Buddhist statuary around the temple (didn’t destroy its Hindu element)

1.4 State Building in the Americas

  • Mesoamerican civilizations

    • The Maya civilization (200s-900s) was a sophisticated civilization in Mesoamerica (urban, advanced writing system, math)

      • State structure: decentralized collection of city-states frequently at war with one another

      • Expanded to neighboring regions by creating a vast network of tributary states

        • Locals remained independent but had to send tribute to Mayan leaders

      • Emphasized human sacrifice

        • Sun was a deity constantly losing energy in a struggle against darkness, required human blood sacrifice

    • The Aztec Empire (1345-1528) was founded by semi-nomadic Mexica people

      • The Mexicas migrated south in the 1300s and built power through military and strategic marriages, Eventually created an alliance with 2 other Mesoamerican states, establishing the Aztec Empire

      • Aggressively expanded

      • Continuity (with Mayans): Decentralized power, tributary system, religious motivation for expansion (required tribute human sacrifices)

      • Legitimized their rule by claiming heritage from older, more renowned Mesoamerican people

      • Tenochtitlan was the capital

      • Commercialized economy: marketplaces

      • Palaces for leaders and pyramid temples

  • The Inca Empire was an Andean civilization (South America) established in the 1400s (in formerly-Wari territory, which collapsed in the 1000s)

    • Incas were outsiders who rose to power in a similar fashion as the Mexica/Aztecs and expanded their empire rapidly

    • Centralized power: massive bureaucracy

    • Required some tribute, but not as much as the Aztecs

    • Mit’a system: required all people to periodically work on state projects (mining, military)

  • North American civilizations

    • Mississippian culture (Mississippi river valley): first large-scale civilization in North America, established 800s

      • Fertile soil → Agricultural-based

      • Hierarchical political structure: powerful chiefs known as the Great Sun ruled each town and extended political power over smaller satellite settlements

      • Known for mound-building

        • Mounds were memorial/burial and religious sites

        • Huge scale shows that they had enough people to accomplish this

    • The Chaco and Mesa Verde societies were established in the west

      • Very dry: Chacos used sandstone to build and Mesa Verde peoples dug houses in the sides of cliffs

  • Sub-Saharan African civilizations

    • The Swahili civilization on Africa’s east coast (est. 700s) grew rich from participating in the Indian Ocean trade network

      • Exported gold, ivory, timber, and slaves from inland farmers/pastoralists to Indian/Arabic merchants

      • Hierarchical system with merchants above commoners

      • Ruled by a king but no real unified structure

      • Voluntary conversion to Islam, spread through merchants → connected them to the economy of Dar-al-Islam

      • Swahili was a hybrid between Bantu indigenous languages and Arabic

    • The Great Zimbabwe was a more inland state that got rich by controlling ports that gave them access to Indian Ocean trade

      • Exported gold, economy focused on farming and cattle herding

      • Constructed a huge capital city (2nd biggest after Egyptian pyramids)

      • Rulers never converted to Islam

1.5 State Building in Africa

  • West/East Africa

    • The Ghana, Mali, and Songhai empires (will revisit)

    • The Hausa Kingdoms were a collection of politically independent city-states that gained power/wealth through trade across the trans-Saharan trade network

      • Middlemen for goods grown in the interior (like the Swahili), transported them to West/North Africa

      • Each state was ruled by a king (hierarchical societies)

    • Elites converted to Islam, facilitated trade with Muslim merchants

    • Ethiopia was a Christian kingdom

      • Exception to the generalization that African states adopted Islam to organize their societies and facilitate trade with the Islamic world

      • Constructed huge stone churches to legitimize power

      • Hierarchical society: ruled by a king

      • Grew wealthy through trade in the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean

      • Exported salt

    • The Roman Empire ruled with Christianity

    • The Great Schism of 1046 led to the splitting of Christianity into two: Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Roman Catholic Christianity

    • In 476, the Western half of the Roman Empire fell, breaking apart into many decentralized states that followed Roman Catholic Christianity

      • Power was never centralized, but religion kept some sort of common structure

      • Fought Muslims in distant lands in the Crusades

        • Did not end well for the Christians, apart from the first crusade

      • Islam and Judaism still played some roles in Western Europe

        • Muslims ruled the Iberian peninsula

        • Jews regularly facilitated/participated trade, but there was lots of suspicion and anti-Semitism

    • The remaining eastern half of the Roman Empire was known as the Byzantine Empire

      • The Byzantine Empire ruled with a highly centralized government and followed Eastern Orthodox Christianity

      • The decline of the Byzantine Empire began in 1200 due to neighboring Islamic influence

      • The Ottoman Empire replaced the Byzantine Empire after they took over Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul 1453 → Islam

    • The Kievan Rus adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity before the fall of Constantinople, but replaced the Byzantine Empire as the main embodiment of the belief after it fell

      • Borrowed from the Byzantine (architecture, alphabet, Church to organize state)

    • In the beginning of the time period (1200), there were no major empires in Europe

      • The social, political, and economic order was organized around feudalism, a system of allegiances between powerful lords/monarchs/knights

      • Greater lords and kings gained allegiance from lesser lords and kings, and would grant them land to keep them loyal

        • Independent rule: manorialism

        • Serfs were bound to land and worked it in exchange for protection from the lord and his military forces (NOT owned, but apart from that basically slaves)

      • Monarchs in various states began to gain power and centralize their states with militaries and bureaucracies in the beginning of the time period (1200)

        • Monarchs overtake the nobility in having power, and begin to compete with each other → conflict

Unit 2: Networks of Exchange

2.1 The Silk Roads

  • The Silk Roads were a vast network of roads/trails that facilitated trade and the spread of culture/ideas across Eurasia in and before 1200-1450

    • Mostly luxury items (like Chinese silk) because the trade roads were not profitable for bulk goods

    • Cultural diffusion

      • Trade along the Silk Roads was enabled by many factors

        • Innovations in commercial practices

          • Development of money economies

            • First in China

              • Paper money allowed merchants to deposit bills in one location and then withdraw the same amount in another location

                • Travel was made easier, transactions were more secure

          • Increasing use of credit

            • Chinese “flying money”

              • Pieces of paper could be obtained from merchant families and redeemed for coins elsewhere

          • Rise of banks

            • Banking houses in Europe where merchants could present bills of exchange for money

        • Transportation

          • Caravanserai: inns/guest houses spaced about a days’ journey apart on frequent routes where merchants and their animals could rest for the night

            • Offered safety from plunderers

            • Centers of cultural exchange/diffusion

          • Saddles made riding easier over long distances

            • Frame and mattress saddles allowed camels to carry more goods

          • The Silk Road trade had many effects

2.2 The Mongol Empire

  • Cities that were strategically located along trade routes grew in power and wealth

    • Merchants stopped at these cities to resupply and rest

    • Kashgar was located at the convergence of two major routes in Western China

      • Hot and arid terrain bordered Kashgar on the east and west

      • Kashgar was built around a river (agriculture), so traveling merchants stopped for water/food

      • With the increasing demand for interregional trade, Kashgar became a destination in itself hosting highly profitable markets and eventually became a center for Islamic scholarship

    • Samarkand was another city in Central Asia

  • Increased demand for luxury goods (Chinese silk and porcelain)

    • As demand increased, sellers began ramping up production of silk and porcelain

      • Along the Yangtze River valley, former rice farmers began to scale back on growing rice in favor of silk and textiles

        • Proto-industrialization: A process by which China began producing more goods than their population could consume, which were then sold in distant markets

        • China invested profits from silk/porcelain trade into their growing iron/steel industry

  • Cultural diffusion

    • Merchants spread Buddhism/Islam and were exposed to other cultures at caravanserai

  • The Mongol Empire (1206-1368) held the largest continuous land-based empire ever

    • Mongols were pastoral nomads (traveling people) living near the Gobi desert

    • Temujin was a Mongol who grew up to be a powerful leader

      • Led successful military raids and formed strategic alliances, uniting various Mongol groups together in 1206 and assumed the title Chinggis Khan (aka Genghis Khan)

      • Attacked and conquered northern China, Central Asia, and Southern Russia

      • After Chinggis Khan died in 1227, his sons ruled the empire through its peak in 1279 and to its death in 1368

    • The Mongols were able to conquer powerful territories due to many factors

      • Strategic military organization

        • Chinggis Khan organized forces into groups of 10,000, 1,000, 100, and 10 for efficient management

          • If 1 person deserted, the entire group would be killed

      • Tools

        • The Mongols used larger bows that were more accurate and powerful

        • Many Mongols were skilled horse riders who could often outride enemies

      • Luck

        • The Song Dynasty was weak (recently lost its northern territory) and the Abbasid caliphate was fragmenting

        • The Mongols brought the Abbasid Caliphate to an end with the sacking of Baghdad in 1258

      • Reputation for brutality

        • Mongol armies would slaughter nearly everyone in a settlement, but leave a few alive so they could warn others to surrender

          • Sometimes, people would even surrender without a fight

      • Pax Mongolica: Century of peace under Mongol rule

        • Once the Mongols ruled everything, they were relatively peaceful

        • The Mongol Empire was organized by Chinggis Khan’s grandsons into several Khanates/military regions, and rulers often adopted the cultural norms of their people

          • Khanate of the Golden Horde (Russia)

          • Ilkhanate

          • Chagatai Khanate

          • Khanate of the Great Khan (Yuan dynasty)

            • Kublai Khan ruled the Yuan dynasty and united warring factions across China, so many Confucian elites believed he possessed the Mandate of Heaven

            • Kublai Khan styled himself as a benevolent Confucian-style ruler, but did not become Chinese

        • Under Mongol rule, trade and the Silk Roads were prospering like never before

          • Since they ruled the whole length of the Silk Roads, passage for merchants was safer than before

        • Improved infrastructure: building bridges and repairing roads

        • Increased communication

          • The Yam system was a series of communication and relay stations spread across the empire

          • Persian and Chinese o cials were able to work together across distances, exchanging artisans and ambassadors with each other as well as sharing military intelligence

          • Different parts of the empire were more friendly to each other, leading to increased trade and wealth

2.3 The Indian Ocean Trade Network

  • The Mongols transferred technology and culture throughout their empire

    • Intellectuals and skilled artisans were highly valued, and were the ones left alive when the Mongols invaded other regions

      • Skilled people were sent all over the empire, leading to the transfer of technology/ideas and culture

        • Medical knowledge developed by Greek/Islamic scholars was transferred to Western Europe

    • The Mongols adopted the Uyghur Script from a conquered people as the Mongol language had no written form → became a kind of lingua franca (widely adopted imperial language)

    • The Mongol Empire fell as quickly as it rose, and many under Mongol rule began installing powerful centralized leaders and creating a unified culture

  • The Indian Ocean trade was a network of sea routes that connected the various states throughout Afro-Eurasia through trade

    • Had existed a long time, but expanded significantly in the 1200-1450s for many reasons

      • Collapse of the Mongol Empire

        • When the Mongol Empire collapsed, travel along the Silk Roads became less secure and people turned to maritime trade in the Indian Ocean

      • Commercial practices

        • Money economies and credit made trade easier

      • Transportation technologies

        • Magnetic compass

        • Astrolabe

        • Lateen sail

        • Knowledge of monsoon winds

        • Improvements in shipbuilding: Chinese junk and Arab dhows

      • Spread of Islam

        • Facilitated trade in the ocean like it did on land

    • Indian Ocean trade allowed for trading of bulk common goods (i.e. cotton textiles and grains) along with luxury goods

      • Maritime trade had many effects

        • Growth of powerful trading cities

          • The Swahili city-states imported gold, ivory, and slaves from the interior of Africa and sold them to merchants

            • Used profits to build elaborate mosques

          • Malacca controlled the Strait of Malacca, so it was able to get rich by taxing merchants passing through

2.4 Trans-Saharan Trade Network

  • Gujarat was a great place to stop by between East/Southeast Asia and Africa

    • Traded goods like cotton textiles and indigo for gold and silver from the Middle East while taxing ships going through its ports

      • Diasporic communities were established across Asia, groups of people who settled down away from home and retained their cultural customs

        • Chinese, Arab, and Persian diasporic communities would interact with merchants and the government to facilitate trade

          • Cultural and technological transfers (religion, language, technology)

    • Zheng He was commissioned by China’s Ming Dynasty to explore the Indian Ocean and enroll new states into China’s tributary system

      • Had a huge fleet of over 300 ships and 27,000 men, carrying gunpowder cannons

      • Influenced many states around the Indian Ocean to take more significant roles in trade

  • The Trans-Saharan network was a series of trade routes that connected North Africa and the Mediterranean world with the interior of West Africa and the rest of sub-Saharan Africa

    • Expanded during the 1200-1450s due to new transportation technologies

      • The Dromedary camel (1 hump) was resistant to drought

      • Saddles allowed more loads to be carried

      • Caravanserai were established along trade routes

    • Each region specialized in creating different goods, creating demand for trade and expansion

      • Gold

      • Kola nuts (caffeine)

      • Horses

      • Salt (high demand)

    • The empire of Mali was established in the 1200s and got rich through trans-Saharan trade

      • Exported gold and taxed merchants traveling through their territory

      • Elites converted to Islam, which connected Mali economically with Dar-al-Islam

      • Mansa Musa was a rich Muslim emperor of Mali who decided to embark on the Hajj, spending gold like crazy on the way (especially in Egypt) → shows wealth of Mali

        • Monopolized trade between the North and interior of Africa, making Mali rich and facilitating trade network growth

  • Diffusion of ideas came along with trade

2.5 Cultural Effects of Connectivity

  • Spread of religious ideas

    • Buddhism spread from India to East Asia, changing over time → syncretism

      • In China, Buddhism was explained in terms of Daoist ideas, creating Chan Buddhism (popular among the poor)

      • In Japan, Buddhism changed to become Zen Buddhism

    • Islam influence expanded

      • Many African and Southeast Asian elites converted to Islam to be included in the vast network of trade under Dar-al-Islam (i.e. Swahili)

  • Literary and artistic transfers

    • Muslim scholars translated and commented upon Greek and Roman classical philosophy at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad

      • These works later sparked the Renaissance in Europe (1300s-1500s)

  • Scientific and technological innovations

    • Chinese papermaking and movable type (printing) spread to Europe, increasing literacy rates

    • Chinese gunpowder spread to Islamic empires and later Europe

  • Networks of exchange also affected cities

    • Led to the increasing wealth/power of some trading cities

      • Hangzhou controlled the southern end of the Grand Canal in China, becoming a huge urbanized trading city

      • Samarkand and Kashgar were located strategically along the Silk Roads and grew by facilitating trade

    • Militaries also used trading routes, bringing destruction to some cities

      • Baghdad, the capital of Islamic cultural and artistic achievement, was sacked by the Mongols in 1258

        • The Abbasid Empire was ended and Baghdad declined

      • Constantinople, the political and religious capital of the Byzantine Empire, was sacked by the Ottomans in 1453 (renamed Istanbul)

    • Increased interregional travel was facilitated by networks of exchange as the Mongols made travel more secure

      • Ibn Battuta was a Muslim scholar from Morocco who traveled all over Dar-al-Islam

        • He was able to do this because of trade routes and technologies (merchant ships, camels, caravans)

        • Wrote detailed notes about the places, people, rulers, and cultures he encountered

        • Helped his readers understand different cultures around the world

      • Marco Polo traveled from Italy to China and throughout the Indian Ocean

        • Wrote about the court of Kublai Khan and China’s wealth → Europeans were awed

      • Margery Kemp was a Christian mystic who made pilgrimages to holy sites (Jerusalem, Rome, Spain)

        • Dictated her observations to be written down

        • Showed the cultural variation; different ways Christianity was practiced across different cultures

2.6 Environmental Effects of Connectivity

  • There were many environmental effects of the networks of exchange

    • Diffusion of new crops

      • Bananas spread from Southeast Asia to Africa, where sub-Saharan lush rainforests were prime conditions for them to grow

        • Expanded diets, led to population growth

          • Bantu people, who previously only lived in places where yam grew, migrated as they could eat bananas now too

      • Champa rice was introduced to China from Vietnam

        • Matured quickly and could be harvested more often → population explosion

      • Citrus fruits (sour oranges and limes) were introduced by Muslim traders into Europe and North Africa by the Mediterranean trade routes

    • Diffusion of Diseases: the Bubonic Plague/Black Death

      • Started in Northern China in 1331, traveled rapidly across the Silk/Sea Roads

      • Killed a huge portion of Middle Eastern and European populations (30-50%!)

1450s-1750s: GERMS - Unit 3: Land-Based Empires

  • GERMS Acronym:

    • G - Gunpowder Empires

    • E - Exchange & Exploration (Columbian Exchange)

    • R - Renaissance & Reformation

    • M - Ming/Qing Dynasty

    • S - Silver, Sugar, & Slavery

    • The Gunpowder Empires were land-based, geographically expanding empires that were powerful due to gunpowder weapons

3.1 Empires Expand

  • The Ottoman Empire was the most significant Islamic empire, established in the 14th century

    • Controlled the Dardanelles choke point, and used it to launch expansion campaigns

    • Controlled much of Southwestern Europe and Anatolia by 1450

    • Adopted gunpowder weapons

    • Sacked Constantinople (ended the Byzantine Empire) in 1453 and renamed it Istanbul

      • Sultan Mehmed II sent a huge military with cannons, blasting the wall into pieces

  • The Safavid Empire was established in the 1500s

    • Shah Ismail declared his empire a Shi'a Muslim state, which meant they believed that Muhammad’s true successor must be a blood relative

      • Sunnis believed that the successor could be elected

      • Made the everyone, like the Mughals and Ottomans mad

    • Shah Abbas expanded the Safavid military and adopted gunpowder

  • The Mughal Empire replaced the Delhi Sultanate in the 1500s

    • Babur used a gunpowder-armed military to expand, and his grandson Akbar was a great administrator who led the Mughal Empire to become the most prosperous empire of the 1500s

      • Akbar was also religiously tolerant

  • The Qing Dynasty replaced the Ming Dynasty after the Mongol Yuan Dynasty came to an end

    • The Ming Dynasty was ethnically Han, and expanded its territory with gunpowder

    • The Qing Dynasty was run by the Manchu people after they invaded the fractured Ming Dynasty in 1636

      • Launched a huge conquest to retake Ming Dynasty lands

    • Conflicts arose between empires due to political and religious conflicts

      • The Safavid-Mughal conflict in the 1600s was a series of wars that occurred amidst religious rivalry as both empires wanted the Persian Gulf

        • Shi’a and Sunni conflict

        • No clear victor

      • The Songhai-Moroccan conflict

        • The Songhai Empire was rich by the 1500s as they participated in trans-Saharan trade, but was weakening because of internal conflict

        • The Moroccan kingdom wanted to have more control over Songhai trade routes, and launched a surprise invasion with gunpowder-armed armies

3.2 Administration

  • Rulers of land-based empires legitimized and consolidated their power in many ways

    • Large imperial bureaucracies to administer expanding empires

    • The Ottoman Empire used the Devshirme system, staffing their bureaucracy with highly trained slaves

      • Enslaved Christian boys from the Balkans were sent to Turkish homes to learn the language and then to Istanbul for a proper education

        • Became soldiers or administrators

      • The Safavids did something similar, taking Christian boys from the Caucasus region

    • Military expansion → Elite cadres of military professionals

      • The Ottoman Empire used Janissaries, Christian boys from the Devshirme system, to form the core of their standing army

    • Religion

      • Europe: Divine right of kings Jesus approved the King’s rule

    • Aztecs: Human sacrifice

    • Art

      • Kangxi imperial portraits depicting his Confucian values convinced the Chinese that the Manchu emperor was legitimate

    • Architecture

      • The Palace of Versailles was built for the French Monarch Louis XIV, and the massive building was a display of power

        • Louis XVI also consolidated power at the Palace of Versailles by forcing the French nobility to live in his palace part time

      • The Inca Sun Temple was built for worship

    • Empires financed their endeavors in many ways

      • The Mughal Empire used the Zamindar system to collect taxes

        • Since the Hindu majority was suspicious of Muslim Mughal rule, the empire tasked local landowners (Zamindars) to collect taxes on behalf of the emperor

      • The Ottoman empire used tax farming to collect taxes

        • The highest bidder was allowed to collect taxes from a particular group of people and take their cut

        • Helped the Ottoman government get free revenue with bidding at the beginning of the year, and they didn’t have to pay the tax collectors

      • Aztecs used tribute lists

3.3 Belief Systems

  • The Protestant Reformation occurred in the 1500s, splitting the Catholic Church

    • Martin Luther was a Catholic monk who saw corruption in the Catholic Church

      • The Catholic Church needed funds for architecture and other projects, and used shady methods to get that money → people’s confidence in the church waned

        • Sold indulgences, where people could pay to get slips of paper that forgave their sins

        • Put high church positions up for sale (Simony)

      • Martin Luther wrote the 95 theses, denouncing corrupt practices/doctrines he noticed in the Catholic Church, and nailed them to a church door in Wittenberg, Germany

        • Used the technology of the printing press to spread word quickly

      • The Catholic Reformation, or Counter Reformation, was the Catholic Church’s response to the Protestant Reformation

        • The Church gathered for a series of meetings known as the Council of Trent

          • Change: Eliminated many corrupt practices

          • Continuity: Reaffirmed ancient doctrines (salvation by faith and works, nature of biblical authority)

        • Created a permanent split in the Church, and rulers across Europe either remained Catholic or imposed Protestantism upon their people

        • Led to political conflict and wars in Europe until 1648

    • Between the Ottoman (Sunni) and Safavid (Shi’a) empires, political rivalry led to further conflict

    • In South Asia (India), the Muslim Mughal rulers and the Hindu majority were able to grow somewhat closer

      • Sufism and the Bhakti movement shared some similarities, so some exchange and blending occurred

      • Sikhism emerged

Continuity: blended doctrines of both belief systems together

(monotheism, reincarnation)

Change: eliminated the caste system and gender hierarchies

Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections

4.1 Technology

Power shifted from land-based empires to European sea-based empires in the

period 1450-1750

Europeans adopted maritime technologies from other nations through

merchants during the Pax Mongolica

Chinese magnetic compass

Arab/Greek astrolabe

Arab lateen sail

Improved astronomical charts from MuslimsEuropean innovations also let them dominate trade in the Indian Ocean

Portuguese Caravels were small and nimble, unlike ships in the past

(i.e. Chinese Junk)

Armed with cannons, could access inland rivers

Portuguese Carracks were focused more on trade, carrying more

cargo

Armed as well, helped them dominate the Indian Ocean

The Dutch Fluyt was designed solely for trade, with massive cargo

holds and small crews

Helped the Dutch overtake the Portuguese in the Indian

Ocean

Cheap production with innovative tools, responsible for half

of Europe’s shipping tonnage by the 1650s

4.2 Causes of European Exploration

Sea-based exploration was often sponsored by the state

Europe was recovering from the Black Death and monarchs had begun

consolidating power (no more feudalism)

Built up militaries, used gunpowder weapons, and implemented tax

systems

Increased demand for Asian and Southeast Asian spices (i.e. pepper)

Land-based empires controlled trading routes on land, so spices

were extremely pricey in Europe

Wanted to get rid of the Muslim middlemen

Portugal and Spain were the first sea-based empires

Portugal created a trading post empire in Africa and Asia

Prince Henry the Navigator sponsored the first European attempts

to find an all-water route into the Indian Ocean trade routes

Made possible by technology (compass, astrolabe) and new

ships (caravel, carrack)

Wanted trans-Saharan gold and Asian spices

Wanted to spread Christianity and find a mythical Christian

monarch (Prester John)

Set up trading posts to facilitate trade in Africa and eventually Asia

because colonies were too expensive

Originally sought gold in Africa, but then discovered Calicut

and the Indian Ocean trade network

Portugal wanted to own the Indian Ocean trade network

Fit weapons on their ships, succeeded relatively easily

Spain preferred setting up colonies over trading posts

Christopher Columbus wanted to find an easier way to Southeast

Asia by sailing the Atlantic, and instead discovered the Americas in

1492Spain began conquering the Americas, opening up the

transatlantic trade network

Many European empires launched sea-based exploration and conquest programs

due to political rivalry, envy, desire for wealth, and the need to find alternative

routes to Asia

France sponsored expeditions seeking a Westward passage to the Indian

Ocean

Found Canada instead

Established the French colony Quebec in 1608

Apart from Quebec, most French territories were trading

posts, as death tolls were too high due to violence/disease

Profited off of the fur trade

England was late to game

Textile industry was making money, so they didn’t care enough to

take risky expeditions for a while

Eventually commissioned Sir Walter Raleigh to explore westward

Established England’s first colony in the Americas,

Virginia/Roanoke (unsuccessful)

Jamestown was later established in 1607

The Dutch gained independence from Spain by 1579, and emerged as the

wealthiest state in Europe

Eventually overtook the Portuguese in controlling the Indian Ocean

trade

Also established a presence in Africa and the Americas/New World

(New Amsterdam)

4.3 The Columbian Exchange

The Columbian Exchange was the transfer of new diseases, foods, plants, and

animals between the Eastern and Western hemispheres

Began when Christopher Columbus sailed the ocean blue in 1492

Europeans brought disease vectors with them

Native populations had no immunity, and up to half of the population

died → the Great Dying

Malaria

Measles

Smallpox

Made easier the European takeover of the Americas

Plants and food was transferred both ways

Europeans brought wheat, grapes, and olives (European), as well as

bananas and sugar (African/Asian)

Cash crops were grown using coerced labor on European

plantations in the AmericasEach plantation often only grew 1 type of crop, and exported

it to Europe (i.e. sugar plantations in the Caribbean)

Maize, potato, and manioc were brought to Europe from the

Americas

Diversified diets led to a healthier population and more babies

Animals were mostly brought to the Americas by Europe

Pigs, cattle, sheep

No predators; multiplied greatly

Caused environmental consequences like erosion

Horses were a game-changer in America, allowing native

populations to hunt large herds of buffalo

4.4 Establishment of Sea-Based Empires

Europeans began building their empire for gold, god, and glory (money, to spread

Christianity, and be the greatest state)

The Portuguese established themselves first in the Indian Ocean

Wanted to own/control trade rather than participate in it

Armed their ships (caravels/carracks)

Set up trading posts

The Spanish established colonies in the Indian Ocean (Philippines) as well as

the Americas

In both, they used tribute systems, taxation, and coerced labor

The Dutch replaced Portugal in the Indian Ocean trade using fluyts

Set up trading posts

Eventually colonized Indonesia

Also founded New Amsterdam in the Americas

France discovered Canada and got rich through the fur trade (mostly trading

posts in America)

The British had a late start

Sir Walter Raleigh founded Roanoke in the Americas (failed)

Couldn’t take over Mughal India (like they wanted to), so set up some

trading posts there

In the 1700s, these trading posts would be transformed into

colonies

Continuity and Change in trade

Continuity: Merchants who had already been using the trade network

continued to use it → continued to get rich

i.e. Gujaratis in the Mughal Empire

Change: Resistance

Daimyo in Japan were united in the 1500s by a shogun from the

Tokugawa clan (Tokugawa Japan)Tokugawa Japan was initially open to European trade, but

then realized merchants were trying to divide Japan again

with their Christianity

Kicked Christian missionaries out, suppressed Christianity

by the end of the 1500s

Only 1 port with the Dutch (Deijma), who didn’t care about

spreading religion

Ming China isolated itself from Europe and the Indian Ocean

Zheng He’s endeavors were unsuccessful, and China created

isolationist trade policies

African states that participated in trade grew greatly

The Asante Empire traded gold, ivory, and slaves with the Portuguese

Got rich, expanded military/power

Later used the money to resist British colonization

The Kingdom of the Kongo traded gold, copper, and slaves with Portugal

Most elites converted to Christianity

In the Americas, European focused on exporting cash crops (agriculture) to get rich

Continuity: Used existing labor systems

The Spanish used the Inca mit’a system to force native populations

to work in the mines for silver

Change: Introduced new labor systems

Chattel slavery: Enslaved Africans treated like property

Race-based

Slavery became hereditary

Indentured servitude: poor Europeans signed contracts to come to

America in exchange for working on a piece of land for some time

(often 7 years)

Encomienda system: Spanish forced indigenous people to labor in

exchange for food/protection (similar to feudalism)

Focused on controlling the population

Hacienda system: Indigenous laborers were forced to work on

Haciendas (large agricultural estates) owned by elite Spaniards

Replaced the Encomienda system

Focused on exporting food and land ownership

Slavery had continuity and change

Continuity

Trade of African slaves

Change

African slaves in the Middle East and Asia often assimilated to the

culture of where they lived

Women were preferred because slaves were often domestic

servantsSome slaves could hold military positions

African slaves in the Americas worked on fields

Men were preferred 2:1 → impacted demographics of African

states

The trans-Atlantic slave trade was on a way bigger scale than

past slave trade

Racial prejudice was introduced, as slavery became

identified with blackness → justified brutality of slave

owners

4.5 The Economics of Empire Building

Mercantilism is a state-driven economic system that emphasizes the buildup of

gold/silver wealth by maintaining a favorable balance of trade

Merchants wanted more exports (goods) than imports (gold/silver)

Powerful motivation for growing empires because colonies were closed

markets that purchased exports only from the parent country

Joint-stock companies were limited liability businesses funded by a group of

investors (private, not government) and chartered by the state (the state often

granted these companies monopolies in various regions)

The state used merchants to expand their influence, while merchants relied

on the state to back up their monopolies

Interdependence between government and merchants, led to

expansion

The Dutch East India Company was chartered in 1602 by the Dutch state,

granting it a monopoly on trade in the Indian Ocean

Company’s investors became super rich

Government was able to expand its power/influence across the

Indian Ocean

The British East India Company and French East India Company were also

established, leading to competition and war

i.e. Anglo-Dutch war

Spain and Portugal continued funding trade and imperial ventures through

the state, leading to their influence declining

Change and continuity in trade networks

Change

Atlantic system: goods, wealth, and slaves

Europeans became a huge global power

Sugar: demand in Europe for sugar (from Caribbean plantations)

skyrocketed

Silver: the Spanish exploited mines in Latin America (i.e. Potosi) for

silver, which was transported to Spain

Used to purchase goods in Asia (China took most of the

silver)Goods purchased in Asia with silver were then sold in the

Americas for more profits

Coerced labor

Forced indigenous labor

Indentured servitude

Enslaved Africans

Continuity

Afro-Eurasian regional markets continued to flourish

Overland routes like the Silk Roads were still controlled by Asian

land-based powers (Ming/Qing China)

Most people in the world (peasants and artisans) continued to live

life the way they always had

Most peasants were subsistence farmers: produced only

what they needed

Some peasants began producing more for export

Artisans continued making goods by hand, though with

increased demand

Increased connections in the world had social impacts

Gender imbalance in Africa: Africa lost many men as slaves

Changed family structures

Fewer men and more women led to an increase in polygyny, where

men had more than one wife

Cultural synthesis

African slaves learned creole languages (mixed

European/African/Indigenous languages)

Belief systems affected societies

Spain and Portugal sent missionaries (Jesuits) to spread Catholic

Christianity to indigenous peoples in their colonies in South America

European language/culture was introduced and often imposed upon

indigenous populations

Aided by the printing press

Was not completely successful

Some indigenous people claimed to “adopt” Christianity, but

continued to practice their own beliefs

Colonial authorities were angry → violence

Slow progress of conversion led to syncretism: Christian, African,

and native belief systems were blended

4.6 Challenges to State Power

As Europeans expanded their maritime empires, they tried to centralize their power

and maintain economic/political control

Colonized populations were oppressed, leading to resistance among locals

The Fronde occurred in FranceLouis XIV, embracing absolutism, consolidated all power for

himself → fought wars of expansion

Passed edicts that increased taxation, angering the French

nobility

The nobility led peasants in spontaneous rebellions

Failed, monarchy only increased in power

Queen Ana Nzgina’s resistance in Africa (Ndongo and Matamba)

Concerned with encroachment of Portuguese, so she allied

with the Dutch and Kongo to fight them

Successful

The Pueblo Revolt in North America

The Pueblo locals had been forced into coerced labor and

suffered due to missionaries and disease

Rebelled and killed many Spanish missionaries, gaining

independence for about a decade before the Spanish came

back

Enslaved peoples also resisted

Maroon societies were established in the Caribbean and Brazil

Free blacks lived here, and slaves who ran away from

plantations came here

Colonizers didn’t like them, but most attempts to get rid of

them failed (maroon societies were naturally fortified by

forests/mountains)

The Stono Rebellion of 1739 occurred in British North America

South Carolina exported rice and indigo

100 slaves there rebelled, taking over an armory and killing

enslavers

4.7 Changing Social Hierarchies

Responses to ethnic diversity varied greatly

Jews in Spain and Portugal were expelled

After Spain retook the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslims

(Reconquista), they turned to expel Jews

Jews who fled to Portugal were then expelled again after a Portugal

formed a marriage alliance with Spain

Jews in the Ottoman Empire were a little better off

Many fled from Spain/Portugal to the Ottoman Empire

Even though they had to pay the non-Muslim jizya tax, they could

exist peacefully

Some even rose to power in court

The Manchu Qing Dynasty made attempts to adopt aspects of Confucianism,

but made a sharp division between Manchu and Han people in their empireHad a civil service examination system, but high positions were

reserved for the Manchu people

Han men were forced to wear their hair in the traditional Manchu

braided queues

Under emperor Akbar’s rule, the Mughal Empire tolerated diversity

Removed jizya (later reintroduced)

Funded construction of Christian churches, temples for Hindus, and

mosques for Muslims

New social hierarchies in the Americas as different people rose to power

The Spanish Casta system in the Americas was established by

conquistadors, erasing cultural identities

New elites: Peninsulares (Spanish-born whites) and creoles

(American-born whites)

Mestizos (white/native), mulattoes (white/African), Native

Americans, African slaves

Existing elites in Europe were struggling to maintain power

Russian boyars were aristocratic landowners who lost power due to

absolutism (Peter the Great)

Forced to serve the state

Ottoman Timars were land grants given in payment for military service

Aristocrats who controlled timars got rich

Ottoman sultans began converting timars to tax farms in the 1500s

1750s-1950s: RAISING

R - Revolutions

A - Abolition

I - Industrialization

S - Social Darwinism & Spheres of Influence

I - Imperialism

N - Nationalism

G - Global Migration

Unit 5: Revolutions

5.1 The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment provided the ideological framework for revolution

Rationalist (emphasized reason over emotion) and empiricist (argued

knowledge was gained through senses) approaches to the natural world and

human relationships

The European Scientific Revolution from the previous time period

(1500s-1600s) emphasized reason over religion

New breakthroughs in astronomy and anatomyThe Enlightenment built upon the Scientific Revolution to study the

human society

Reexamined the role of religion: shifted authority from God

to the individual

New belief systems

Deism: Believed a god created everything but then no longer

intervened with the world

Atheism: Rejected religion and gods

New political ideas

Individualism

Natural Rights (John Locke): Governments cannot take away

God-given natural rights

Social Contract (Rousseau): Society must make governments of

their own will, and bad governments could be overthrown

The Enlightenment had many effects

Inspired revolutions, which led to increased nationalism (sense of

commonality among a people based on a shared language/culture)

Affected suffrage (right to vote for different races and women)

Discouraged slavery because it infringed upon natural rights

Great Britain was the first to abolish slavery in 1807 (didn’t affect

them much)

Slave rebellions

The 1831 Great Jamaica Revolt played a role in Britain’s

abolition of slavery

Contributed to the end of serfdom

Serfs became unnecessary as agricultural economies converted to

industrial economies

Peasant revolts further encouraged the end of serfdom

5.2 Nationalism and Revolutions

Revolution had many causes

Nationalism

Some states attempted to use nationalism to foster unity

Russia tried to require Russian to be spoken across the

nation

Backfired in Poland, Ukraine, and Finland as they already had

established languages (counter-nationalism)

Discontent with absolute rule

The Safavid Empire tried to implement harsh taxes and was met with

rebellion on its borders by nomadic peoples (led to its end by

invasion in the 1700s)

The Wahhabi movement sought to reform the “corrupted form” of

Islam in the Ottoman Empire, leading to its declineNew ideologies and systems of government

Popular sovereignty: people have the power to govern

Democracy: people have the right to influence government

Liberalism: emphasized rights and economic freedom

4 main revolutions in the time period

American Revolution: 1776-1783

British ruled the 13 colonies loosely until they needed money after

the Seven Years’ war, when they started imposing high taxes

Colonists, armed with Enlightenment principles, rebelled and

succeeded with help from France

Declaration of Independence: example of Enlightenment

influence

Provided the template for other nations to overthrow oppressive

powers and establish republics

French Revolution: 1789-1799

French soldiers coming home from the American Revolution did not

like absolute rule after seeing USA democracy

When Louis XVI tried to impose new taxes to cover war debts,

people rebelled

Storming of the Bastille

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: example of

natural rights and popular sovereignty

Haitian Revolution: 1791

Haiti: colony of France

After the majority enslaved black population heard about the French

revolution, they wanted liberty and equality too

Revolted against the French and established a republic with the first

black government

Latin American Revolutions

Spanish and Portuguese colonies resented imperial control

Creoles led the rebellion

Given the opportunity to rebel when Spain weakened after

Napoleon’s invasion (1808) and the Portuguese monarch was

overthrown

Simon Bolivar, a creole military leader, used Enlightenment

ideals to inspire rebellion

Letter from Jamaica: example of popular sovereignty and

right to self-rule

Nationalist movements called for unification, more independence, and self rule

Philippine revolution

The Philippines were a Spanish colony with similar social structures

as Latin AmericaOnly wealthy creoles and mestizos got university education

in Europe, which armed them with Enlightenment ideas

Spanish attempts to suppress the spread of Enlightenment ideas led

to a revolution

Unification of Italy and Germany

Fragmented states came together under a single government

5.3 Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution is the process by which states transitioned from agrarian

economies to industrial economies

Goods went from being made by hand to being manufactured by machines

Started in Great Britain, 1750s for many reasons

Proximity to waterways made for easier transportation of

manufactured goods

Coal and iron deposits in Great Britain allowed for coal power and

infrastructure/machines

Access to raw colonial resources

More efficient agriculture from the agricultural revolution increased

lifespans and population

Crop rotation: maintained fertility of the soil by keeping part

of the land unplanted

Seed drill: planted seeds more efficiently

New foods from the Columbian Exchange (i.e. potato)

Urbanization

More efficient agriculture meant less farmers were needed

→ people went to industrial cities for jobs

Legal protection of private property

Entrepreneurs felt safe enough to risk investment

Accumulation of capital

Lots of rich people from the slaves trade (capitalists)

Factory system: goods mass-produced by machines

Concentrated production in a single location

Machines initially powered by water

Specialization of labor: workers specialized in a single action instead

of making the entire product by hand

5.4 The Spread of Industrialization

The steam engine converted fossil fuels into mechanical energy

Allowed factories to be built anywhere (instead of only by waterways)

Steamships could also transport mass-produced goods faster

Industrialization was adopted around the world at varying rates, and industrialized

nations became rich/powerful

Slow adopters lacked of coal deposits, were land locked, and/or were

hindered by the nobility who didn’t want to lose powerEastern/Southern Europe

Non-industrialized nations lost power

The Middle East and Asia, previously manufacturing powerhouses,

saw their share of production decline

i.e. textiles and shipbuilding in Egypt and India

France began to industrialize in 1815 after Napoleon was exiled

Slower than Britain because France lacked coal/iron deposits

Napoleon constructed the Quentin Canal, linking France to

some iron/coal deposits in the North

The government constructed railroads

New factories created a cotton industry and revived the silk

industry

Slower adoption meant France avoided some of the social upheavals

Britain experienced because of its rapid transition

The United States began to industrialize after the Civil War

Massive territory (resources), political stability, and population

growth (labor and a market for goods) fostered industrialization

Led to a higher standard of living

The Russian tsar led a state-sponsored industrialization process to catch up

with Western Europe

Railroad (trans-Siberian railroad) and steam engine technologies led

to increased trade with China and new markets

Top-down, state-led industrialization meant bad conditions for

workers → uprising

Eventually caused the Russian Revolution (1905)

Japan saw China’s decline (century of crisis) and decided to learn from the

West to stay powerful

Meiji Restoration: Defensive industrialization, borrowed western

technology/education

Became the most powerful state in eastern Asia

5.5 Technology of the Industrial Age

The First Industrial Revolution lasted from 1750-1830 and was focused around Great

Britain

Characterized by coal-powered steam engines

The steam engine powered factory machines, locomotives, and

steamships

The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, shortening the distance

between Europe and Asia → expanded trade

The Second Industrial Revolution took place from 1870-1914 and spread across

Europe, the US, Russia, and Japan

Characterized by oil (fossil fuels)The internal combustion engine was smaller and more efficient than

the steam engine (powered the automobile)

New technologies

Steel replaced iron as the main building material

Made using the Bessemer Process (combined iron, carbon,

and hot air)

Cheaper, stronger, and more versatile

Chemical engineering

Synthetic dyes for textiles were cheaper

Rubber was made harder and more durable using

vulcanization

Electricity

Light bulbs

The telegraph was able to communicate with distant places

using morse code

Effects of technology

Development of interior regions

Enabled by railroads (i.e. US & Russia) and the telegraph

Increase in trade & migration

Globalization of the economy

Easier transportation led almost half of Europe’s population

to migrate from rural areas to urban manufacturing centers

for jobs

Famine and political instability in the late 1800s led 20% of

Europe’s population to migrate to the Americas, Australia,

and South Africa

New sources of fuel (coal and oil) dramatically increased the amount of energy

available to humans, but created environmental problems (air pollution)

5.6 Government-Sponsored Industrialization

Some state governments led industrialization in fear of being dominated by others

Egypt led an unsuccessful attempt at industrialization

Was technically part of the Ottoman Empire, but ran itself with a

powerful military government

The Ottoman Empire was declining due to internal

corruption/conflict

Muhammad Ali led industrialization

Built textiles/weapons factories

Government purchased crops to be sold on the world market

Imposed tariffs on imported goods to protect the

development of the Egyptian economy

Great Britain didn’t want Egypt to industrialize because it needed to

cross Egypt to access AfricaBacked the Ottoman Empire in 1839 during its war with Egypt

and won, forced Egypt to remove tariffs

British goods overpowered Egyptian goods, stunting

industrialization

Japan was successful at industrializing, becoming a major world power

The Tokugawa Shogunate (isolated, had only 1 Dutch trading port)

was overthrown by samurai in 1868

An emperor was reestablished

Japan saw the Western domination of China and didn’t want it to

happen to them

US Commodore Matthew Perry’s black ships came to Japan

and demanded they open ports

Japan initiated an aggressive state-sponsored defensive

industrialization program

Meiji Restoration: Japan sought to escape foreign domination by

adopting industrial practices that had made the West powerful

Borrowed a lot at the beginning, but later more selectively

Sent emissaries to learn about the West, then implemented

them

Established a constitution for elected parliament (borrowed

from Germany)

Funded building of railroads, a national banking system, and

textile/munitions factories

5.7 The Economics of Industrialization

Free market economics replaced mercantilism

Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations

Anti-mercantilism because it ‘only benefited the elite’

Argued for laissez-faire, or for the government to stop intervening

with the economy

Invisible hand: people should interact with each other

through supply and demand, making everyone happy

Said it would distribute wealth more evenly… sure buddy

Many western governments abandoned some state trade regulations after

1815, leading to increased trade and greater wealth

Did not distribute wealth more evenly

The laboring class was suffering

Some people wanted government legislation (Jeremy Bentham),

others thought free market economics was a trick for the British to

dominate other nations (Friedrich List)

i.e. Zollverein

As free market practices took on, transnational corporations (companies controlled

in one country with operations in others) were establishedMany examples

Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (1865): used by the

British to control the illegal selling of opium to China

Made British bankers rich

Unilever Corporation: British/Dutch joint company that

manufactured household goods (soap)

New banking/finance practices were used to fund transnational

corporations

Stock markets: people could buy stocks to own portions of the

company (i.e. New York stock exchange)

Limited liability: owners were more protected, took more risks

As Western industrialized nations grew richer, standards of living increased

A new middle class grew, wealthy enough to purchase the consumer goods

being mass-produced

Manufacturing technology made the production of goods cheaper/more

efficient

Mechanized farming led to better harvesters that diversified diets and

increased lifespans

5.8 Reactions to the Industrial Revolution

The working classes suffered from harsh conditions and began to call for reform

Political: the right to vote for lower classes

Mass-based political parties incorporated social reforms to attract

the votes of laboring classes

Social: social groups that protected workers from sickness and social

events

Labor unions were collections of workers that joined to protect their

own interests

Previously illegal, gave workers more bargaining power

(higher wages, fewer hours, improved conditions)

Some unions turned into political parties, like the German

Social Democratic Party, which wanted a socialist society

Education: new laws requiring children (6-12yo) get education

Compulsory education prepared children for more specialized jobs

Urban: laws and investment in sanitation

Karl Marx was a German who lived in Britain and witnessed firsthand the poor

working conditions → wanted change

Believed capitalism was unstable because it created a sharp class division

Believed a violent revolution would lead to a classless society

Communist Manifesto: Book on scientific socialism by Marx and

Friedrich Engels

Argued that history obeys laws, moving through patterns/stages with its

major energy arising out of class struggleThe Industrial Revolution had caused a huge division between the

rich bourgeoisie, who exploited the proletariat

China (Qing) began its century of crisis as industrialized European powers took

advantage of it

Britain created a huge trade deficit with China in the previous century (all of

their silver went to China for Chinese goods)

Got the silver back by illegally exporting opium from colonial India

Lin Zexu led Qing China’s crackdown on the sale of opium, which

angered the British

Industrialized Britain beat unindustrialized China

The first Opium War resulted in China being defeated by the British

Forced to sign unequal treaties (i.e. Treaty of Nanjing) that

opened up their trading ports

Other European empires heard about this and took advantage of China

Carved spheres of influence where they had exclusive trading rights

The Chinese government responded to western domination in the 1860s-70s

with a series of defensive industrializing reforms called the

Self-Strengthening Movement

Hindered by Chinese land-owning conservatives who didn’t want to

lose power

Failed

China miserably lost the Sino-Japanese war

The Ottoman Empire was declining in the mid-1800s as it lost territory to industrial

countries and couldn’t raise sufficient tax revenue →

“Sick Man of Europe”

Ottoman authorities launched a defensive industrialization program called

the Tanzimat reforms

More aggressive/transformative than China’s self-strengthening

movement, but didn’t prevent the empire from collapsing

Built textile factories

Implemented western law codes/courts

Expanded education systems

Reforms were more secular, different from the historic Islamic

character of the Ottoman Empire

The western-educated Young Ottomans emerged following the Tanzimat

reforms, seeking liberal political change (European-style parliament and a

constitutional government)

The Sultan conceded absolute power in 1876 and agreed to create a

parliament and constitution

Backtracked and declared absolute power again after a potential war

with Russia loomed, continuing to rule for 3 decades

5.9 Society and the Industrial Age

New social classes arose from the Industrial RevolutionLaboring class: factory workers and miners

Mostly rural farmers who moved to urban areas after mechanized

farming rendered them jobless

Skilled farmers became unskilled factory workers

Factory managers began to view workers as interchangeable and

easily replaceable

Benefitted from higher wages than rural workers, but suffered from

dangerous conditions

Laboring class women often went to work because their husbands’

wages were not enough to sustain a family

Children also worked wage jobs, but some governments later

passed laws to put them in school

Middle class: white collar workers (wealthy factory owners/managers,

lawyers, doctors, teachers)

Benefited most from industrialization

Could afford manufactured products

Some upper middle class people could buy their way into

aristocracy

Many middle class people believed that the laboring class was just

lazy, and that if they worked harder they could be in the middle class

as well

Middle class women often did not work and remained in a “separate

sphere” from men

Played a domestic role (create a haven for their working

husbands and raise their children)

Upper industrialists: Industrial corporation owners

Became more rich than traditional aristocrats

Cities industrialized too fast for infrastructure to keep up

Pollution

Soot, smog, and waste in rivers

Housing shortages

Tenements were built to house an influx of people

Small, poorly ventilated, no sanitation

Disease

Increased crime

Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization

6.1 Ideas that Justified Imperialism

In addition to god, gold, and glory, new motivations were behind European

imperialist expansion

Nationalism

Brought people together, but also turned them against other nations

as each wanted to be the most powerfulScientific racism: idea that humans can be hierarchically ranked in

biological classes based on race

Studies “proved” that white Europeans had bigger skulls,

“justifying”

their superiority

Social darwinism

Believed that only the fittest thrived, so western industrial societies

had proven their ways were best suited for the current global

environment

Civilizing mission: a sense of duty western societies possessed to bring the

glories of their civilizations to “lower” societies

Christian missionaries

Reorganization of colonial governments to western models

Imposition of western-style education to suppress indigenous

cultures

6.2 How Imperial States Expanded

The second wave of imperialism (1750s-1900s) was different from the first

(1450s-1750s)

Shifted geographical focus

Africa and Asia over Asia and the Americas

New imperial states

Spain and Portugal declined

Great Britain, France, and Dutch continued dominating

Germany, Italy, Belgium, the USA, and Japan emerged

New methods of imperial expansion

State takeovers of private colonies

The Congo Free State in Africa was a private colony of King Leopold

II of Belgium

Exploited the Congo for rubber

The king was super harsh, and when people found out they

got mad

Belgian government took over the Congo in 1908

The Dutch government took over Indonesia from the Dutch East

India company

Britain took over India from the British East India Company

Diplomacy and warfare in Africa

Diplomacy (peace by negotiation): The Berlin Conference

The “Scramble for Africa” was a competition for European

nations to expand their empire, fostering imperialism

The empires thought that whoever had the biggest empire

was the most powerfulOtto Von Bismarck called major European empires together

at the Berlin Conference, where they split up Africa amongst

themselves

The borders divided ethnic groups and brought together

rivals

Warfare: France and Algeria

France was in debt to Algeria, so France sent a diplomat to

Algeria to negotiate payment

After the Algerian king got mad at the diplomat, France

invaded and took over Algeria

Settler colonies: A colony in which an imperial power claims an

already-inhabited territory and sends its own people to set up an outpost of

their own society

i.e. 13 British colonies in North America (from previous time period),

and the British settler colonies in Australia and New Zealand

Spread disease and killed the indigenous people

Conquering neighboring territories

The United States’ westward expansion (manifest destiny)

The US government forcibly moved indigenous people onto

reservations

Forced indigenous people into American boarding schools,

stripping their culture away

Pan-Slavism in Russia

Wanted to unite all Slavic people under Russian authority

Led to campaigns to claim neighboring territory

Japan

Came to power and decided to build an empire (conquered

parts of Korea, Manchuria, & China)

6.3 Indigenous Resistance to Imperialism

Causes of anti-colonial resistance

Questioning of political authority

Western-educated indigenous people were armed with

enlightenment thought and began questioning foreign domination

Non-educated indigenous people also got mad

Nationalism

When imperial powers imposed their language on colonized peoples,

conquered peoples united against them

Direct resistance

Indian rebellion of 1857

Tupac Amaru II rebellion in Peru

Yaa Asantewaa War in West Africa

Creation of new states on the periphery of colonial empiresCherokee state in the US

As the US expanded westward, Cherokee people assimilated to

American culture

Americans still weren’t happy so they passed the Indian

Removal Act in 1835, forcing them along the Trail of Tears

from NC to Oklahoma territory

Established a new state with its own government on the

periphery of the Oklahoma territory

US expansion later took away their rights again

Religious rebellions

Ghost Dance movement in North America

Xhosa cattle killing movement

British tried to take over Xhosa territory

The Xhosa believed that if they slaughtered their cows then

new healthy cattle would replace them and their ancestors

would drive the British from their land

Led to starvation and the British took over

6.4 Colonial Economies

Europeans wanted raw materials, so they transformed colonies into export

economies (economics focused on exporting goods for distant markets) to serve

their own interests

Converted native subsistence farmers (growing a variety of crops for

themselves) into farmers farming 1 or 2 cash crops for export (i.e. cotton,

rubber)

Also extracted other natural resources like copper

The Europeans did this for many reasons

Natural resources for their factories

i.e. Indian/Egyptian cotton for Britain, West African palm oil,

guano for fertilization

Food for growing urban centers

i.e. sugar, coffee, meat

Many effects

Colonies’ profits from raw material exports were used to purchase

finished manufactured goods

Colonies provided a closed market

Colonies became economically dependent on their imperial

colonizers

If European need for their exports decreased, they suffered

6.5 Economic Imperialism

In addition to using physical force, imperialists used economic imperialism to

extend control over another state by economic means

The Opium Wars led to China’s downfall in the 1800sIndustrialized Europeans beat the un-industrialized China

The First Opium War led to the Treaty of Nanjing, in which China had

to open ports to the British

Qing China was further weakened by the Taiping Rebellion in the

1850s, a movement among ethnic Hans to remove the Manchu Qing

rulers

Successful for 15 years before the Qing came back

Resulted in 20-30 million deaths and wasted money →

slowed China’s industrialization

The Second Opium War led to more unequal treaties as China was

defeated by Britain and France

Other Western European nations, Russia, and Japan then came in

and carved spheres of influence, dominating China’s economy

The British invested heavily in Argentina’s railroads and infrastructure to

extract raw materials

The port of Buenos Aires was built to export these products to

Britain

6.6 Causes of Migration

Environmental causes of migration

Demographic change

New medicines

Diverse diets

Increased populations led to increased poverty in rural areas, so

people moved to urban industrial cities for jobs

Famine

Unindustrialized nations practiced primitive agriculture which

sometimes led to famine

Irish Potato Famine: a potato blight killed all the potatoes and led to

famine

Potatoes made up a big portion of the Irish poors’ diet thanks

to the Columbian Exchange

Millions fled the country to places such as the United States

Technological cause: Easier/cheaper transportation

The railroad and steamship facilitated regional and international migration

Led to urbanization → huge population growth in urban areas

Many immigrants left their homes and never went back, while others did

Many Lebanese merchants who migrated to South America to

escape religious persecution in the 1900s went back

Economic causes: people migrated for work

Voluntary migration

Irish, Italian, and German immigrants to the east coast of America

Chinese immigrants to the west coast of AmericaFound jobs in the railroad industry

Coerced labor

Atlantic slave trade earlier in the period

Convict labor

Penal colonies in British Australia and French Guinea

Convicts were sent to penal colonies to labor

Semi-coerced labor

Indentured servitude: laborers signed contracts to work for 3-5

years in exchange for free passage to their destination

Indian indentured servants to the Caribbean, Africa, and

Southeast Asia

Chinese indentured servants to tin mines in Malaysia

6.7 Effects of Migration

Increasing gender imbalance

Men left home societies to search for work, so women were left to run

households

Women took on traditionally masculine roles

Farming (breaking ground)

Tending to livestock

Family structures changed

In South Africa, some women sold cassava → financial

independence

“What is man? I have my own money”

Ethnic enclaves: areas with high concentrations of a people with the same

ethnicity/culture in a foreign culture

A place for native language, religion, and foods → outposts

Cultural diffusion

Irish immigrants in the US increased the popularity of catholicism in

a mostly protestant US

Some Chinese migrants in Southeast Asia became key players in the

colonial economy

Nativism: A policy of protecting the interests of native-born people over the

interests of immigrants

Rooted in ethnic/racial prejudice, or a fear of cultural difference

Even though immigrants often took low-paying jobs that native-born

people didn’t want, they still discriminated against them

Irish in the United States were deemed “Irish” instead of white →

discrimination

US Chinese Exclusion Act (1882): Restricted Chinese immigration

British White Australia Policy (1902): Restricted Chinese/Asian immigration

1900s-Present: DICED - Decolonization

I - Innovations & Integration (Globalization)

C - Cold War & Communism

E - Environmental Issues

Unit 7: Global Conflict

7.1 The Shifting of State Power After 1900

The Ottoman Empire fragmented

Following the Tanzimat reforms, emergence of the Young Ottomans, and the

sultan’s temporary liberal reforms, the Young Turks emerged as a response

to the revival of authoritarianism

Called for complete Ottoman modernization

Nationalism: envisioned the Ottoman Empire as Turkish → excluded

ethnic minorities

The Young Turks overthrew the sultan in 1908

New changes

Secularized schools & law codes

Established political elections

Imposed the Turkish language

Changes alienated minorities in the empire (i.e. Arabs)

Minorities experienced nationalism → further fractured the

empire

The Russian Empire became the Soviet Union

State-led industrialization under Tsar Alexander II was continued under

Nicholas II

The growing middle class began to resent the Tsar’s authoritarian

policies and wanted more say in politics

The impoverished laboring class were also unhappy

Tensions boiled over in the Russian Revolution of 1905, which was brutally

suppressed by Tsar Nicolas II (unsuccessful revolution)

Implemented some reforms: a constitution, legalized labor unions,

political parties

Continued authoritarian rule → did not really resolve tension

Continuing tensions and World War I led to the Russian Revolution of 1917

(successful)

Led by Marxist visionary Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks

(political group)

Established a communist state: The Soviet Union (USSR)

Qing China collapsed, leaving the Peoples’ Republic of China

The Taiping Rebellion (internal), coupled with China’s losses in the Opium

Wars and the Sino-Japanese War (external) weakened it

The Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists led an insurrection against

the foreign Qing authorities: the Boxer RebellionQing authorities had no money, so the British/French/Japanese sent

troops to put down the rebellion

The foreign powers imposed further demands on China in

return

Western-educated Sun Yat-Sen led the Chinese Revolution of 1911, ending

the rule of emperors in China

Led to power struggles and civil wars

China eventually emerged as a communist state led by Mao Zedong

Mexico became a republic

In the late 1800s-early 1900s, dictator Porfirio Diaz ruled Mexico → his rule

made everyone mad

Diaz was ousted, and after his replacement was assassinated, a

decade-long civil war followed → The Mexican Revolution

In 1917, Mexico emerged as a republic with a constitution and new reforms

that satisfied the people

Mostly domestic effects; not significant internationally

7.2 Causes of WWI

Causes of WWI: MAIN

Militarism: belief that states should build up strong militaries and employ

them aggressively to protect their interests

Industrialization allowed states to produce deadlier weapons faster

After the unification of Germany, it industrialized rapidly and built up

its military

Possessed the most powerful military in Europe by the early

1900s

Britain also built up a huge military, draining their national resources

at a far greater pace than Germany

Alliances

Created in the interest of national security and to isolate rival states

Triple Alliance: Germany, Italy, Austro-Hungarian Empire

Triple Entente: Britain, France, Russia

States developed military mobilization plans in case of war

Made possible by railroads

Each state wanted to be the first to put their plan into action

in case of war

Once militaries were mobilized, it was hard to stop

Imperialism: desire to project power

Germany sought to enlarge its own empire at the expense of others

European powers began to experience conflict over existing

colonies → created alliance

NationalismNations emphasized the glory of their own people while defining

others as enemies

Education systems, propaganda

Many believed that rival states threatened them

Believed that they had to respond with force because

enemies couldn’t be compromised with

The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand (Austro-Hungarian) in the Balkans by a

Serbian nationalist sparked WWI

Nationalism caused the Serbian assassination, and nationalism ensured

that the Austrians would retaliate

Alliances meant everyone got involved → what should’ve been a small

regional dispute was escalated

Serbia was allied with Russia, Britain, and France

Austria-Hungary was allied with Germany and Italy

7.3 How WWI Was Fought

WWI: aka the Great War, or the War to End All Wars

WWI was the world’s first total war, requiring the mobilization of entire populations

(military AND civilian) to fight (civilians were also legitimate targets)

Propaganda was used to motivate populations for their continuous sacrifice

Demonized enemies and exaggerated their atrocities

Nationalism, generated fear towards enemies and pride for one’s

nation

New military technologies made WWI a very deadly war

Machine guns

Chemical gas

Tanks

WWI was fought using trench warfare, leading to years of stalemates and

huge casualties

Each side dug miles of fortified trenches for protection

Whoever left their trenches would get mowed down by

machine guns

Elongated WWI (went from a quick war where soldiers would be

home before Christmas to a years-long war)

As imperial states’ own resources/military were exhausted, they mustered

colonial troops to fight the war

Colonies were not happy fighting a war that had nothing to do with

them

Colonies hoped these sacrifices would lead to independence, but it

didn’t

WWI ended when the US joined the Triple Alliance (Allied Powers) on the side of

Britain and FranceThe US wanted to remain neutral, but Germany kept sinking US ships and

trying to get Mexico to start a war with the US

The US’ involvement turned the tides and led to Germany’s defeat

WWI ended with the Treaty of Versailles, declaring that the Central powers

(Germany, etc.) had lost and the Allied powers had won

US President Woodrow Wilson hoped to forge peace without victory,

but Britain and France used the treaty to punish Germany

Led to WWII

7.4 The Global Economy Between World Wars

Debt and economic crisis

German hyperinflation: Germany printed too much money to pay back

reparations and war debts

Germany couldn’t pay reparations to Britain and France, so Britain

and France couldn’t pay off war debts to the US

The Soviet Union didn’t pay off its debts because they claimed that the new

Bolshevik government wasn’t responsible for old debts

Colonial governments suffered because they depended on the economies of

their parent countries

The economy was somewhat restabilized in 1924, as Germany borrowed

money from US banks to pay reparations

Rapid economic recovery

The Soviet Union

Exited WWI during the Russian Revolution of 1917, but had already

devastated the economy

Lenin instituted the New Economic Policy in 1923

Introduced limited free market principle

Biggest institutions remained under state control

The New Economic Policy saw some success, but died with Lenin in

1924

Joseph Stalin replaced Lenin and aggressively pushed for industrialization

Introduced five year plans, aiming to multiply Soviet industrial

capacity by 5 in 5 years

A nearly-impossible task, so he used brutality to do this

Stalin enacted the collectivization of agriculture, merging small

privately owned farms into large collective state farms

Arrested/killed resisting landowners (Kulaks) and sent them

to gulags

Leftover peasants lacked managerial experience and were

unable to match state production quotas

Harvests were cut in half, i.e. in Ukraine (produced most of

the USSR’s wheat)Everything that was produced was exported to feed urban

workers, starving the farmers (Holodomor)

The US’ economy was booming until the stock market crash in 1929 → the Great

Depression

The US couldn’t continue investing in war-recovering economies, making

the depression global

Prior to the depression, the US government wasn’t very involved in the

economy, but FDR’s New Deal changed that

Government put people to work on infrastructure projects

Introduced a government-sponsored retirement program

Created government medical insurance

WWII took the US out of the depression in 1939 (how successful FDR’s New

Deal was is debatable)

7.5 Unresolved Tensions After WWI

After WWI

The Republic of Turkey emerged under Attaturk

Most colonies switched powers from one imperial power to another

At the Paris Peace Conference that ended WWI, European nations

came together to divide Ottoman and German empires amongst

themselves as spoils of war

US President Woodrow Wilson emphasized self-determination (self

governance), so Europeans compromised by creating a mandate

system in the Middle East

Middle Eastern territories would become “mandates”

administered by the League of Nations, putting them “on the

path towards self-government”

Mandates were basically treated as colonies

Japan grew more powerful and started expanding their empire

Invaded Manchuria and parts of East Asia

The League of Nations wasn’t powerful enough to stop them

Japan quit the League of Nations and continued its

conquest

Japan’s territories were known as the Greater East Asia

Co-Prosperity Sphere

Colonies were unhappy after WWI

Many colonies expected greater freedom after WWI for many reasons

Colonial soldiers fought for the parent countries with no reward

US President Wilson’s emphasis on self-determination created false

hope

Imperial powers maintained their colonies during the war, and some

even gained territory afterwards

Some resistance movements were createdThe Indian National Congress was formed in the late 1800s to protest

against Britain for greater freedom

Britain didn’t really listen even after WWI

Mohandas Gandhi later led peaceful protests against British

policies, resulting in India’s independence after WWII

The African National Congress was founded in South Africa,

influenced by the ideas of Pan-Africanism (equality/unity of all black

people)

Wanted greater freedom for African colonies

Wasn’t really successful until after WWII

7.6 Causes of WWII

Unsustainable peace: resentment

The victorious powers were overly harsh toward Italy and Germany in the

Treaty of Versailles

Italy did not receive the land it was promised after switching sides

during WWI

Italy was not very helpful to Britain and France after they

switched sides to fight against Germany, so they withheld

the land they promised

Germany suffered under the harsh treaty

Reparations payments ruined their economy

Forced demilitarization made Germany vulnerable

The war guilt clause forced Germany to accept the entire

blame for the war, humiliating them

Continued imperialism

Japan’s expansion across East Asia

Italy decided to expand its empire on its own after not receiving promised

lands

Invaded Ethiopia and consolidated African colonies into an Italian

empire

Germany started expanding under the leadership of Adolf Hitler

Took back lands taken in the treaty: Rhineland, Czechoslovakia,

Austria

No one stopped Germany because they didn’t want another

war: appeasement

Hitler took this as a sign to keep going

Economic crisis: Great Depression

Facism and totalitarianism

The Soviet Union became communist

After Lenin, Stalin declared that he was going to spread communism

across the globe

Italy became fascistFascism: political philosophy characterized by extreme nationalism,

authoritarianism, and militarism

Benito Mussolini organized Italy to serve his vision

Though he lowered standards of living, Mussolini provided

social security and public services, satisfying many

Charismatic speeches, nationalistic parades, and mass

communication roused public support

Germany became fascist

Adolf Hitler was an orator who also used mass communication to

spread nationalism

Declared enemies to be socialists, communists, and Jews

The Nazi Party improved standards of living for suffering Germans,

gathering public support for its goals:

Cancel reparations payments

Remilitarize Germany: violated the Treaty of Versailles

Territorial expansion (Lebensraum:

“living space”)

Eliminate “impure races” (i.e. Jews)

7.7 How WWII Was Fought

WWII was another total war, but bigger than WWI

WWII began when Hitler invaded Poland in September 1939

No more appeasement

The Axis powers included Germany, Italy, and Japan (fascist)

The Allied powers included Britain, France, the USSR, and the USA

The USSR and USA weren’t directly involved in the war at the

beginning, but joined later

The USSR originally was more aligned with Germany, but

joined the Allies when Russia broke their non-aggression

pact in 1941

The USA originally just supplied money/munitions, but joined

when Japan bombed Pearl Harbor in 1941

Continuity: how governments prepared for/waged WWII

Propaganda

Provoked nationalism, demonized enemies, and invoked fear to

assemble armies and keep civilians sacrificing

Change: Scope of the war

New Ideologies

Fascism: Germany, Italy, Japan

Hitler used conquered peoples in concentration camps across

Germany

Communism: the Soviets

Already had five year plans before the warStalin pushed for collectivization and industrialization even further

with brutal demands

Democracy: Britain, France, US

Britain’s new Prime Minister Winston Churchill was determined to

stop Hitler’s Third Reich

Used persuasion to dub WWII as a “peoples’ war”

Propaganda

Promised expansion of welfare

Repression of basic freedoms

Over 100,000 Japanese Americans, most of them citizens, were forced into

internment camps in fear of them being spies

Jews and “inferior” peoples were forced into ghettos and then concentration

camps or killed

New strategies and technologies

Blitzkrieg: lightning war, eliminated the enemy with speed (used by

Germany)

Air assault from planes, quick infantry movement from tanks

Firebombing: small clusters of explosives meant to start fires and burn

urban areas (used by Allied forces)

i.e. Dresden, Germany and Tokyo, Japan

Atomic bomb (used by the US in Hiroshima and Nagasaki)

The Allies won WWII

7.8 Mass Atrocities in the 1900s

Causes

World Wars

120 million deaths, half of them civilian

New technologies

Aerial warfare (firebombing, atomic bomb)

Extremist political ideologies

The Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire, WWI 1914-1918

Reforms in the Ottoman Empire after the Young Turks came

to power discriminated against minorities (i.e. Armenian

Christians)

Fearing Armenians would support enemies in WWI, Ottoman

authorities began a program of mass

extermination/relocation

Killed 600,000-1,000,000 Armenians

German Holocaust against Jews, WWII 1933-1945

Hitler wanted to create a “purified German race”

→ the Final

Solution

Targeted the Roma, homosexuals, disabled peoples, political

enemies, and JewsStripped Jews’ rights/citizenship (Nuremberg Laws), forced

them into ghettos, and sent them to

concentration/extermination camps (Auschwitz)

Killed 6 million Jews and 5 million others

The Cambodian Genocide, 1975-1979

The Khmer Rouge, a communist group, took power in

Cambodia under the leadership of Pol Pot

Transformed Cambodia into an agrarian state free from

Western influence

Forced people out of cities to work in labor camps

Killed Western-influenced educated people

Killed 1.5-2.5 million people, 25% of Cambodia’s population

Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonization

8.1 Context for the Cold War and Decolonization

A cold war is a state of hostility between two states characterized by an ideological

struggle rather than open warfare

The Cold War was a conflict between the USA and Soviet Union

Two superpowers emerged after WWII thanks to their economic and technological

advantages

The Allied powers won WWII, but all the European nations were devastated

The United States rose to power

Overcame the Great Depression due to WWII

Many women took up jobs

Industrial sector ramped up to meet wartime demands

The US was far away from the war, so there was much less

destruction

Through the Marshall Plan, the US sent aid for economic recovery in

war torn nations

Helped revive destroyed economies

Technology: atomic bomb

The Soviet Union also rose to power

The Soviet economy grew rapidly before and during WWII

The economy was hit hard during WWII, but was able to recover for

many reasons

Access to natural resources due to its enormous territory

Large population

Investment before WWII → infrastructure already place

Developed an atomic bomb 4 years after the US

The Cold War involved an Arms Race in which both powers spent huge amounts of

money to develop bigger/better weapons

As military spending increased, workers who relied on the industry

increased too → made it hard to cut spendingColonization was largely eliminated in the decades after WWII

After WWII ended and there was still no clear intention for imperial countries

to grant independence to their colonies, massive anti-imperial movements

broke out

Imperial countries had no more resources to resist anti-imperial

movements

8.2 The Cold War

The Cold War had many causes

Conflicting ideologies

Universalizing ideas: those who held these ideas wanted everyone

else to hold them as well

Democratic capitalism (United States)

Free market economics

Political participation from citizens

Authoritarian communism (USSR)

Government control of economy and equal redistribution of

wealth to citizens

Citizens have no voice in the government

Mistrust between superpowers

The Soviet Union (Stalin) kept Eastern European countries as a

buffer zone between Russia and Europe following WWII → Soviet

Bloc

Made the US mad because they had an agreement that these

countries would hold free elections after WWII

Disputes over Germany

Germany was divided into 4 “temporary” occupation zones

(USSR, USA, Britain, France)

Stalin refused to set Eastern Germany free, so it became

another communist state

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill coined the term

“iron curtain” to describe the split between Western and

Eastern Europe

As decolonization created new states across the world, the USA and USSR raced to

influence them

As new nations gained independence, the US/USSR saw them as pawns and

pressured them to pick sides in a conflict that had nothing to do with them

Some groups in new states refused to be pawns

The Non-Aligned Movement was led by Indonesian president

Sukarno

29 African/Asian states met at the first meeting in 1955 (i.e.

India)Described themselves as nonaligned, refusing to be

controlled

Some nations took advantage of the cold war rivalry by playing off

both sides to get weapons/resources that they needed for

development

i.e. Indonesia received aid from the USSR but then killed the

Indonesian Communist Party

8.3 Effects of the Cold War

The effects of the cold war spread across the world

New military alliances protected their members (if one member was

attacked, everyone would respond)

The Soviet Union installed communist governments that served the

Soviet Union in the Soviet Bloc

Formed the Warsaw Pact military alliance

The US and Western Europe formed the North Atlantic Treaty

Organization (NATO) in 1949

Nuclear proliferation

The Arms Race led to the development of the atomic and hydrogen

bomb

Both countries built up their stock

The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 occurred after the USSR sent

nuclear weapons to newly-communist Cuba

After the US failed trying to oust communist leader Fidel

Castro in Cuba, the USSR sent nuclear missiles there

When US spy planes found out, they got very angry (even

though they did the same thing in Turkey)

President JFK ordered a naval blockade around Cuba, and

things became very tense

At the end, all parties backed down and Cuba returned the

missiles

Showed the world that the buildup of nuclear weapons was a

problem

The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was created in 1968, calling on

nuclear powers to prevent non-nuclear countries from developing

nuclear weapons

Proxy wars: local wars took on global scope as superpowers took sides

The Korean War (1950)

After WWII, North Korea was occupied by the USSR and

South Korea was occupied by the USA

When the US and USSR withdrew occupation in 1950,

communist North Korea invaded South KoreaThe UN/USA and USSR then jumped back in, sending

weapons to their sides but not getting actively involved

Ended in a stalemate with 3 million dead

The Angolan Civil War (1975)

Angola was a Portuguese colony of rival groups that united to

oust the Portuguese

After independence, conflicts arose about who would hold

power

The USA, USSR, and South Africa each backed a group,

leading to the Angolan Civil War

The Contra War (1980s) in Nicaragua (South America)

The socialist Sandinista National Liberation Front gained

power in 1979

The US backed a group of contras who committed many

human rights violations as they tried to overthrow the

USSR-backed Sandinistas

Resulted in a ceasefire, but the Sandinistas were defeated in

the next election

8.4 The Spread of Communism After 1900

China adopted communism in 1949

After the Chinese Revolution of 1911, the Chinese Nationalist Party ruled

China was a republic

The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) emerged in the 1920s to

challenge the nationalist party because they believed it was too

dependent on Western powers

When Japan invaded Northern China in 1935, the parties united to

deal with them

When Japan was defeated in WWII, the civil war continued

The CCP took power under Mao Zedong with the help of the Soviet Union and

established the People’s Republic of China in 1949

Redistributed land with a massive collectivization of agriculture

Way more peaceful than in the USSR because the CCP had

built trust with peasants during the civil war

The Great Leap Forward was an economic plan to rapidly

industrialize China through the development of heavy industry

Mao believed that Soviet communism had become corrupt,

so instead of 5-year plans focused on urban areas he

implemented small-scale industrialization in rural areas

Goods created in rural areas were of poor quality

Bad harvests led to 20-50 million deaths in China, and Mao

refused foreign aid because he wanted to show the world

that China was successfulIn Egypt, communism led to conflict

The Suez Canal, completed in 1869 by Britain and France, enabled

Europeans to take a huge shortcut to Asia

When Egypt gained independence (decolonization), it implemented

socialist reforms for Egypt’s land resources (including the Suez

Canal)

Britain, France, and Israel didn’t want the canal to be under

Egyptian control, so they invaded

When the USSR threatened a nuclear strike, the US

pressured Britain/France/Israel into backing off

In Vietnam, a proxy war occurred

When Vietnam gained independence from Japan and France after WWII,

North Vietnam became communist and South Vietnam became

anti-communist

North Vietnam’s land was redistributed from a few wealthy

landowners to the rural peasantry

In Cuba, Fidel Castro led a communist revolution in 1956

Wanted to eliminate Cuba’s dependence on the USA

Supported by the USSR, Castro launched a land redistribution

program and raised wages

Nationalized the land of US corporations who had exploited Cuba’s

economy

The US CIA unsuccessfully tried to overthrow Castro, and only made him

more radical

8.5 Decolonization

Decolonization occurred through negotiated independence and armed conflict

India gained independence through negotiations

India was Britain’s most valuable colony

As Britain industrialized India, a growing educated middle

class emerged

The Indian National Congress was formed in 1885 to petition

the British for more say in government

After fighting for Britain in WWI, many in India were frustrated when

Britain refused to grant independence

Discontent almost became violent when Britain slaughtered

peaceful Indian protestors in the Amritsar Massacre

Indian nationalist Mohandas Gandhi led a nonviolent movement that

led to limited freedoms

After fighting for Britain in WWII, Indians demanded independence

Britain was too broke from the war to do anything, so they

recognized India’s independence in 1947Following India’s official independence, violence broke out as India

was establishing itself as a new state

The Muslim minority in India were afraid they would be

marginalized, so they formed the Muslim League

The Muslim League demanded the partition of India into

Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan

As 12 million Muslims and Hindus migrated, almost a million

were killed

An ongoing conflict in Kashmir arose, where there was a

Muslim majority but Hindu ruler who wanted its valuable

natural resources (UN didn’t really help)

The Gold Coast in Africa also gained independence from Britain using

negotiation

In colonies with a large white European presence, independence was more often

gained through violence

European settlers resisted decolonization, causing violence

France refused to grant Algeria independence due to the large

amount of French people there

The Algerian National Liberation Front was formed,

attacking French troops/civilians

The French responded by killing civilians without restraint

Eventually, president Charles De Gaulle negotiated

independence with Algeria in 1962

Angola gained independence from Portugal similarly in 1975

3 rival ethnic groups had united to oust the Portuguese, but

fought for control afterwards

Led to proxy war

Colonial boundaries had forced rival groups together, and after

decolonization this led to conflict over who would take control

i.e. Nigeria

Has caused lasting tension in Africa

8.6 State Building After Decolonization

Decolonization led to conflicts in new states as colonial boundaries had forced rival

groups together

India (Muslims vs. Hindus) → Kashmir

The Israel/Palestine conflict

Arab Palestine was a Britain mandate

Britain had promised Jewish Zionists a home in the ancestral land of

Israel (in Palestine)

Many Jews had migrated to Palestine before and during

WWII, encouraged by the British

The UN declared that Palestine would be partitioned into two statesPalestinians and other Arabs were upset and went to war

with Israel, but lost

Ongoing conflict

Governments played significant roles in directing their newly independent

economies

Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt

Non-aligned, played off the superpowers to develop (i.e. Suez Canal:

aligned with USSR)

Completed the Aswan High Dam on the Nile River (1970), providing

electricity and irrigation

Social welfare reforms (free schooling/healthcare)

Indira Gandhi in India

Implemented 5 year socialist economic plans to decrease reliance

on foreign aid

Adopted the Green Revolution, using science to develop

high-yielding grain

Nationalized key Indian industries and implemented new

government regulations

Decolonization led to waves of migration to parent countries

People migrated to metropoles, or the former imperial/parent countries, to

find work

During colonialism, imperial states developed cultural and economic

connections with their colonies

Colonies grew familiar with their parent countries’ customs

i.e. India to Great Britain, Algerians to France, Filipinos to the USA

8.7 Resistance to Power Structures

Power structures were sometimes met with nonviolent resistance

Mohandas Gandhi led the Indian National Congress

The Homespun Movement protested Britain’s dominance of India’s

cotton industry

Followers boycotted British textiles and made their own

clothes at home

The Salt March (1930) protested the British salt monopoly

Gandhi led his followers to the sea to harvest their own salt

Gandhi was arrested multiple times

After WWII, Britain no longer had the resources or public support to

resist Indian independence

Martin Luther King Jr. was a US black baptist minister who took inspiration

from Gandhi to fight for equal rights for blacks

Civil disobedience: The Montgomery Bus Boycott in Alabama caused

the city economic distress

King was also arrested multiple timesProtests led the US Supreme Court to outlaw racial discrimination in

the 1950s-60s

Nelson Mandela initially promoted nonviolence but then changed his ways

During apartheid, Nelson Mandela led Black South Africans in

boycotts and strikes

While Mandela was on trial for treason, a group of peaceful

protesters were shot by police (Sharpeville Massacre)

This led Mandela to adopt violence, and he was jailed for it

Mandela became president in 1994, ending apartheid

Most resistance was violent

Augusto Pinochet led a US-backed military coup to overthrow the

democratically-elected Marxist president in Chile

Violently suppressed Pinochet’s political enemies

Idi Amin assumed power in Uganda after a military coup in 1991

He targeted ethnic groups, political enemies, and random people

deemed enemies

i.e. Killed South Asians for “stealing Ugandan jobs”

Intensified violence in Uganda

The rise of the Military industrial complex was fueled by the Arms Race

It was economically profitable to produce weapons of violence

Terrorism is violence used against civilians to achieve goals

Al-Qaeda is a militant Islamic group led by Saudi Arabian Osama Bin Laden

Pressured the US to stop meddling with Middle Eastern affairs with

terrorist attacks

i.e. the September 11 Attacks in the US

Unsuccessful, attacks only provoked the US

8.8 End of the Cold War

The Cold War ended as the Soviet Union grew weaker

The failed Soviet invasion of Afghanistan drained all its money

The Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979 to prop up their communist

regime

They could not win against the US-backed Afghan rebels

(Mujahideen) and their guerilla warfare tactics

Eventually withdrew, but not before wasting tons of money

Technological and military advancements in the US

The Arms Race led to high tensions, but both sides knew not to start

a nuclear war

A period of détente even led to momentary peace in 1970

The Soviet economy had been stagnant since the 1970s and could

not support the same amount of military spending as the US

Mikhail Gorbachev implemented new liberal reforms that led to the end of

the USSRThe Soviet economic crisis was huge when Gorbachev rose to power

in 1985

Foreign trade was limited

Government control of agriculture stifled the industry

Soviet Bloc countries grew discontent with Soviet

oppression (led protests, i.e. Prague Spring)

Gorbachev’s liberal reforms were very unsuccessful

Perestroika restructured the economy, decentralizing some

of the government’s power

Glasnost granted more freedom of speech, leading to

criticism against the government

Ceased military intervention to prop up communist

governments → they all collapsed

As unsuppressed democratic reform movements erupted in eastern

European countries, similar movements began in the USSR

The Berlin Wall fell in 1989, uniting Germany

The Soviet Union was dissolved in 1991, ending the Cold War

Unit 9: Globalization

9.1 Technology Enabling Globalization

Globalization: the phenomenon by which trade and technology have created a

politically, economically, and socially interconnected world

New technologies changed the world, but were not evenly distributed

throughout the world

Wealthy industrialized countries got them first, then they spread

unevenly

New communication technologies overcame geographical barriers

Past technologies: shipbuilding techniques, navigational tools, railroad,

telegraph

Radios allowed people to hear who was delivering messages

Eliminated reporting biases (i.e. reporters emphasizing their biases

in newspapers)

US Franklin Roosevelt’s fireside chats during the Great Depression

and WWII comforted citizens and updated them on New Deal policies

The television replaced the radio in the 1960s

Entertainment

Broadcasted global news (i.e. Vietnam War, Cuban Missile Crisis),

making people feel connected to events across the world

Cellular technologies (cell phone) in the late 1900s enabled connectivity

through the air

People could talk to others no matter where they were

The internet became available to the public in the 1990sThe World Wide Web and personal computers enabled emailing,

business/customer connections, etc.

Transportation technologies made traveling easier

The automobile changed urban landscapes by creating suburbs

Air travel replaced railroads, especially in western countries

People flew for work or leisure

Containerized shipping allowed more efficient transportation of almost all

consumer goods

Businesses were able to relocate manufacturing to developing

countries, saving on labor cost

Energy technologies made electricity more accessible

Petroleum replaced coal as the main power source of industrial

manufacturing (increased production)

Used as fuel for cars/planes

Generated more electricity, which has been democratized

throughout the developed world

Pollution

Nuclear power produces little pollution (cleaner)

Nuclear disasters in the 1970s/80s had huge environmental

consequences (Chernobyl)

Medical technologies increased lifespans and saved lives

Antibiotics

Penicillin was developed in 1928, saving lives of soldiers hurt in war

Vaccines took off in the 1900s

Measles, pneumonia, polio, influenza

Birth control (1950s) led to lower fertility rates, slowing population growth or

even causing population decline

In developing countries without widespread access to birth control,

populations are still growing fast (i.e. Sub-Saharan Africa)

Agricultural technology increased the global food supply

Commercial farming replaced subsistence farming in wealthier countries

Instead of producing small-scale crops for self-consumption,

farmers sold agricultural products on the market to maximize profits

Motorized tractors, combines

The Green Revolution greatly changed agriculture in the 1950s/60s

Genetically modified crops had 3-4x higher yields

Spread to developing countries (Mexico, India, Indonesia) →

sustained population growth

Harmed the environment

Farmers were encouraged to double-crop, or plant more

than one crop in the same soil each year, leading to more

food but also soil exhaustion and erosionAgricultural runoff from increased fertilizer polluted

freshwater

9.2 Globalization and Disease Spread

Disease disproportionately affected less developed countries without widespread

access to medical technologies

Malaria is spread by mosquitoes mostly in warmer/tropical regions

Medical interventions and practical measures (mosquito nets) have

been developed, but it continues to be a problem in poorer regions

(Sub-Saharan Africa)

Tuberculosis (TB) is an airborne disease affecting the lungs

Has a cure, but still affects impoverished countries

Epidemics and pandemics caused social disruption (deaths) and led to medical

advances

The 1918 Influenza Pandemic (Spanish Flu) at the end of WWI was the

deadliest pandemic of the 20th century

Spread by soldiers returning home from WWI, along trade routes

Caused 50 million deaths in 2 years, massive impact on

demographics because it disproportionately killed working-age

people

No significant medical interventions were developed

HIV/AIDS, affecting the immune system, led to millions of deaths starting in

the 1980s

Funding for research was difficult because it disproportionately

affected gay men and drug addicts

Medical interventions led the deadly disease to be more of a chronic

illness in wealthier countries, but it still kills many in Sub-Saharan

Africa

The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 was transmitted through the air and spread

quickly due to globalization

Vaccine was developed and distributed globally rapidly

As people lived longer in developed nations, diseases associated with old age

emerged

Alzheimer’s Disease is a form of dementia that disproportionately affects

older people

Heart disease

9.3 Effects of Globalization on the Environment

Deforestation is the large-scale clearing of trees, and has led to erosion

Causes

Urbanization

Increasing populations of cities has led to urban sprawl (land

is used to build suburbs around cities, enabled by easier

transportation)Need for farmland as populations grow

Effects

Impacted rainforests and extinction of species

Pollution: erosion, runoff

Desertification has converted once-fertile land into infertile land

Decline in air quality

Caused by the global spread of industry and burning of fossil fuels

In 1952 London, the Great Smog (industrial smoke + fog) covered the

city for 5 days and killed tens of thousands

Mexico City smog kills 35,000 people per year

Increased competition over fresh water supply

Only 3% of Earth’s water is usable, and water is needed for industrial

agriculture as populations grow

Half the world doesn’t have clean drinking water

Climate change: the warming of the planet due to the release of greenhouse gasses

Politically debated because industrial companies want to keep making

money

Wealthy societies need to slow industrialization (bad for economy) to

fix climate change

Developing countries won’t be able to industrialize if greenhouse gas

emissions are restricted

9.4 Economics and Globalization

Free market economics spread after the Cold War

Neoliberalism: economic emphasis on free market policies (government

deregulation, lowering tariffs, privatizing industries)

US/UK policies in the 1980s reduced inflation and led to economic growth,

but were bad for the poor/middle class (rich got richer, poor got poorer)

US Ronald Reagan was against New Deal policies and government

spending on public services

Decreased taxes on the wealthy, reduced government

regulation, and cut spending on social welfare programs

Spent a lot on the military

UK Margaret Thatcher also emphasized the deregulation of

businesses, reduction in income taxes, and privatization of

state-owned assets

Augusto Pinochet in Chile promoted free market economics and

privatized some public industries

Influenced by the Chicago Boys

Reforms were unpopular because Pinochet enforced them

with violence, but they worked

The global distribution of work changed after the Cold WarWealthier countries became more characterized by knowledge workers,

who did the thinking (engineers, lawyers, teachers, etc.)

In Finland, investment into communication technology and educated

led it to have a big share of the world’s cellphone/software markets

In Japan, investment into education fought against its

manufacturing-oriented economy to focus more on banking,

finance, and the development of information technology

Manufacturing was relocated to developing countries where international

businesses could save labor costs (Asia and Mexico)

New international institutions arose from globalization, and have further fostered

globalization

The World Trade Organization (WTO) regulates global trade by moderating

negotiations/disputes and assisting developing countries

New regional trade agreements have also arose

The European Union (EU) integrates over 27 nations under a single economic

unit

Lowers tariffs, makes trade easier between them

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations does the same thing in

Southeast Asia

Multinational corporations also arose, based in one country but selling goods in

other countries

Employ knowledge workers in their own countries, manufacture goods in

developing countries, and sell their goods on a global market

They’re basically modern joint-stock companies

Nestle is a multinational company headquartered in Switzerland that

manufactures chocolate in West Africa and sells it on the world

market

Mahindra and Mahindra is a Mumbai-based multinational company

9.5 Globalization and Calls for Reform

Globalization has led to human rights movements

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was created by the UN in 1948

Declares basic human rights, protecting oppressed citizens (women,

children, refugees, etc.)

Established UNICEF, providing welfare services for children

(food, vaccination)

The United Nations’ first World Conference on Women in 1975

Representatives from all over the world came together to chart a

course for the advancement of women

The Negritude Movement called for black equality in the 1930s-40s among

French-speaking Caribbean/African artists

Literary and ideological movement that emphasized black dignity

Inspired future movementsLiberation theology in Latin America was a reenvisioning of the Roman

Catholic Church

Focused on the poor/marginalized, transforming oppressive power

structures

Reformed the Catholic church

Global human rights movements led to reforms in education and politics to be more

inclusive

Womens’ suffrage beginning in the 1920s

The Civil Rights Act prohibited discrimination based on race, religion, sex, or

national origin in public facilities

The Caste Reservation system reserved seats in educational/political

institutions for previously-marginalized castes

Globalization also led to environmental and economic reforms

Environmentalism became a global movement in the 20th century

Greenpeace, founded in 1971, used nonviolent protest tactics to raise

awareness/advocate for the environment

The World Fair Trade Organization was created to encourage fair trade

principles and protect against exploitative practices (low wages, long hours,

unsafe conditions, job instability)

Producers need to earn enough to have a sustainable livelihood and

invest in their communities

9.6 The Effect of Globalization on Culture

A globalized culture, or monoculture, has developed as cultures became

increasingly interconnected

Made possible by communication/transportation technologies

Dominated by western cultures

Has not erased local cultures, but has greatly influenced them

Some see the prevalence of western culture (i.e. Hollywood) in the

world as cultural imperialism

Some local cultures with opposing values feel threatened

Global culture examples

Arts

Reggae music from Jamaica

K-Pop from South Korea

Entertainment

Hollywood from the USA

Bollywood from India across South Asia/the Middle East

Global Sports (spectator sports) have promoted nationalism

The Olympics

The World Cup

Global culture has led to the rise of a global consumer culture, a lifestyle

devoted to spending money on mass-produced material goodsConsumer culture has become global thanks to the US’ influence

The advertising industry transformed America into a

consumer culture after WWII as munitions factories began

producing consumer goods

New global brands (KFC, Coca-Cola, Toyota)

Online retailers facilitated consumer culture and the flow of goods

(Alibaba, eBay)

9.7 Resistance to Globalization

Globalization has led to economic growth (increased standards of living, healthcare,

education/literacy) and the implementation of human rights

Resistance to economic globalization has emerged

The Bretton Woods Conference was a meeting between the US and

capitalist nations

Aimed to construct a more stable and economically-flourishing

post-war world

Promote free trade

Keep global currency values stable and free-flowing (based

on the USD)

The World Bank was created

Provided financial assistance for Europe’s reconstruction

after WWII

Later loaned money to developing countries

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was also created

Facilitates monetary cooperation among members

Critics argue that the Bretton Woods System (World Bank, IMF, World Trade

Organization) marginalized populations in the global south for the economic

benefit of the global north

The Bretton Woods System makes it easy for multinational

corporations to exploit laborers in developing countries

The global approach challenges local economic decisions

Anti-globalization movements have arose

The Battle for Seattle in 1999 was a protest at a WTO meeting in

Seattle

Police harshly dispersed the crowd (tear gas, rubber bullets)

Beginning of a much larger anti-globalization movement by

people who have been marginalized by global economic

policies

Resistance to a globalized culture has also emerged

Some states have resisted a globalized culture by developing their own local

social media

China banned Facebook and Twitter after the 2009 Uighur RiotsBlamed western social media for trafficking in ideas that

caused the uprising

Created the government-censored Weibo to replace it

9.8 Institutions in a Globalized World

Supranational organizations have developed in a globalized world, helping facilitate

global cooperation

World Bank

EU

IMF

The United Nations is a supranational organization that was a result of globalization

and fosters globalization

Created after WWII as a place where nations could negotiate rather than

fight (League of Nations 2.0)

Prevent war

Facilitate cooperation

The General Assembly is a UN body that includes representatives from every

nation (except Vatican City because the Pope no likey and Palestine because

the US no wanty)

Responsible for discussing and making policies for member nations

(many humanitarian, i.e. UNICEF)

Became a place where decolonized states negotiated and addressed

their difficulties

The Security Council is a UN body responsible for for keeping peace

Made of 5 permanent members (US, China, France, Russia, UK) and

10 rotating member nation representatives

Permanent members have the right to veto over policies, which has

led to problems

Avoiding Cold War wars

Condemning Russia’s invasion of Ukraine

Palestine’s membership in the UN

Fixed the League of Nations’ main problem: Has the authority to

send military peacekeepers and impose economic sanctions on

violent states

Negotiated a ceasefire in Liberia in 2003 after years of civil

war

Failed to prevent the Rwandan Genocide in 1994 despite