Hobbes and Human Nature

The Nature of Political Authority in Hobbes's Philosophy

Hobbes presents a unique perspective on political authority, particularly concerning the concept of the state of nature and its implications for governance and morality. This document systematically elaborates on various aspects of Hobbes's arguments as articulated in his seminal work, "Leviathan."

1. The State of Nature

The state of nature is described by Hobbes as a condition where human beings exist without a governing authority. He posits that this state is artificial in a specific sense, as it reflects a lack of established government, which he regards as a human invention. Hobbes argues that the only inherent authority among humans is that of a mother over her child due to the child's dependence on her for survival, as the child is much weaker than the mother.

Key Arguments: 1.1 Lack of Authority among Adults:
Hobbes contends that among adults, there is a fundamental equality; every individual possesses the capacity to threaten another's life. He notes:

1.2 Implications of the State of Nature:
Hobbes emphasizes that the state of nature could arise in various contexts, be it at the beginning of time or within modern societies like seventeenth-century England. He warns that if political structures—like the king's authority or law enforcement—were to collapse, society would regress into a state of war, characterized by violent competition.

2. Human Motivation in the Absence of Authority

Hobbes argues that peaceful cooperation among individuals is highly unlikely without an overarching authority. His core argument includes three points:

2.1 Competition for Resources

Individuals will engage in violent competition for basic necessities and material gains.

2.2 Defensive Violence

Fear (or "diffidence") will compel individuals to challenge and fight others to ensure their personal safety.

2.3 Reputation Seeking

Individuals will seek recognition for their strength or prowess (often termed "glory") to dissuade others from attacking them.

2.4 Complexity of Human Nature:
Hobbes does not assume that all individuals are selfish, cowardly, or vain. However, he acknowledges that many will resort to violence if protective measures (like government) are absent. Notably, he states:

3. The Right of Nature and Self-Preservation

Hobbes articulates the right of nature as the innate right to do whatever one believes necessary to ensure self-preservation. This foundational right leads to the conclusion that:

3.1 Judgment of Self-Preservation

Every individual has the right to determine what actions are necessary for their survival. The crux of Hobbes's argument lies in the understanding that in the state of nature, no one possesses the authority to define or enforce what constitutes good judgment regarding self-preservation.

3.2 Moral Constraints in the State of Nature

Hobbes asserts that without a shared authority, moral judgments about right and wrong become subjective and conflictual. He provocatively claims:

3.3 The Fragility of Covenants

In the absence of government, agreements (or covenants) rely heavily on mutual trust, which is perilously absent in the state of nature. The likelihood of compliance diminishes as individuals face the temptation to break contracts when the risks are low due to a lack of oversight or enforcement.

4. Hobbes's Two Laws of Nature

Hobbes delineates specific laws of nature that govern interactions among individuals:

4.1 First Law of Nature

“Every man ought to endeavor peace, as far as he has hope of obtaining it, and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek and use all helps and advantages of war.” (Leviathan, xiv.4)
This law emphasizes the pursuit of peace, contingent on its attainability.

4.2 Second Law of Nature

“That a man be willing, when others are so too, as far-forth as for peace and defense of himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things…” (Leviathan, xiv.5)
Here, Hobbes outlines the transition from the state of nature to civil society, which requires individuals to mutually agree to surrender certain rights for the sake of collective security.

5. The Nature of Sovereignty

Hobbes's conceptualization of the sovereign entails a powerful and absolute authority that can maintain peace and order in society. The following points highlight significant aspects of his theory:

5.1 Authority and Obligation

The sovereign must possess the ultimate power to enforce laws and maintain civil order. Citizens, therefore, have a duty to obey the sovereign to avoid the regress into the state of nature. Hobbes argues that obedience stems from a social contract, even if coerced.

5.2 Questions of Loyalty

The nature of Hobbesian loyalty suggests that allegiance is given to authority wielding power at any moment, prompting critics to view one who switches sides during conflict as acting morally defensible, provided they retain their safety and self-interest.

5.3 Justification of Sovereign Power

The crux of Hobbes's contract theory lies in the justifications for obeying the sovereign. It becomes crucial to understand how subjects justify their obedience, and whether such obedience stems from a moral obligation or a necessity for self-preservation. Hobbes grapples with the complexities of how political authority emerges amidst possible coercive power dynamics.

5.4 Limitations on Sovereign Power

Although Hobbes acknowledges that moral limits exist on sovereign actions, he argues that there is no practical recourse against sovereign authority in case of dispute. Decision-making power effectively resides with the sovereign, responsible for enforcing laws and resolving conflicts. Hobbes maintains that dividing power would reintroduce the chaos of the state of nature.

6. Conclusion on Hobbes's Political Thought

Hobbes's theories present a comprehensive and often stark outlook on human nature and the necessity of political authority. His concepts of the state of nature, the laws of nature, and the mechanics of sovereignty provide critical insight into the foundational principles of social contract theory and continue to influence contemporary political philosophy. Despite potential criticisms regarding the implications of absolute authority, Hobbes firmly advocates for an ordered society to prevent the descent into conflict and instability, recognizing the weight of his claims and their enduring relevance.