Unit 4: Beginnings of Modern American Democracy (1800-1848)

The "Revolution of 1800"

  • By 1800, the Federalist Party was divided, paving the way for the Democratic-Republicans to take the presidency.
  • Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr ran for the party's nomination; both received an equal number of Electoral College votes; the decision went to the Federalist-dominated House of Representatives.
  • After 35 ballots, Jefferson won after Alexander Hamilton supported him, deeming Burr "a most unfit and dangerous man."
  • Significance of the election:
    • The Twelfth Amendment (1804) allowed electors to vote for a party ticket, addressing the issue of presidents being saddled with unwanted vice presidents.
    • America's first peaceful transfer of power occurred from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans, which Jefferson called "the bloodless revolution."

The Jeffersonian Republic (1800-1823)

  • Transition of power:
    • The transfer of power was not friendly; Adams left the capital to avoid Jefferson's inauguration.
    • Adams made "midnight appointments" to fill government positions with Federalists before leaving office.
    • Jefferson refused to recognize these appointments and replaced Federalist appointees with Democratic-Republicans.
  • Marbury v. Madison (1803):
    • William Marbury, an appointee of Adams, sued Secretary of State James Madison for not certifying his appointment.
    • Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that Marbury had a right to his judgeship but that the Court could not enforce it.
    • The ruling established judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the power to review the constitutionality of congressional acts.
  • Louisiana Purchase:
    • Spain gave New Orleans to the French in 1802, raising concerns about American trade along the Mississippi River.
    • Jefferson sent James Monroe to France to buy New Orleans for 2million2 million. Napoleon, preparing for war and facing a revolt in Haiti, offered the entire Louisiana territory for 15million15 million.
    • Jefferson, a strict constructionist, justified the purchase by claiming his presidential power to negotiate treaties.
    • New England Federalists opposed the Louisiana Purchase, fearing the political power of western states. They formed the Essex Junto to secede, but the plan failed.
    • Explorers like Lewis and Clark were sent to explore the Louisiana Purchase, with Sacajawea as their Shoshoni guide.
    • Explorers reported the presence of British and French forts, which had been deliberately slow to withdraw after regime changes over the last half-century.. This trip included Sacajawea as the Shoshoni guide who helped Lewis and Clark negotiate with other Native American tribes on the way up the Missouri River.
  • Pinckney Treaty of 1794:
    • Spain allowed the United States to trade in New Orleans and acknowledged the border between Georgia and Spanish Florida.
  • Aaron Burr's Conspiracy
    • In 1804, Aaron Burr ran for governor of New York. Alexander Hamilton campaigned against Burr. When Burr lost, he accused Hamilton of sabotaging his political career and challenged him to a duel in which he killed Hamilton. Burr fled to the Southwest, where he plotted to start his own nation in parts of the Louisiana Territory. He was later captured and tried for treason but was acquitted because of a lack of evidence.

Jefferson's Second Term

  • Caught in the middle of French-English disputes.
    • In 1805, Britain and France were at war and blockading each other's trade routes, hurting American trade.
    • The British impressed American sailors, claiming they were deserters.
    • Tensions rose when a British frigate attacked an American ship in American waters.
    • Jefferson responded with a boycott and increased military appropriations.
  • Embargo Act of 1807:
    • Shut down American import and export business, leading to economic collapse in New England and widespread smuggling.
    • The Democratic-Republicans lost congressional seats in the 1808 elections.
  • Non-Intercourse Act of 1809:
    • Reopened trade with most nations except Britain and France.
    • Jefferson followed Washington's precedent and served only two terms, endorsing James Madison.

Madison's Presidency and the War of 1812

  • Madison sought a solution to trade problems, and Congress responded with Macon's Bill No. 2, reopening trade with France and England.
  • Madison promised to cut off trade with the other country if either renounced interference with American trade.
  • Napoleon promised to stop harassing American ships, forcing the U.S. to cut off trade with England, but France continued to harass American ships.
  • The British, responded by stepping up attacks on American ships, making the situation even worse. These developments helped build pro-war sentiments in the United States.
  • War Hawks:
    • Southern and western War Hawks wanted war to seize territories in the west and southwest.
    • Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun were leaders of the War Hawks.
  • Madison declared war in 1812.
  • Tecumseh and Native American resistance:
    • Native Americans aligned themselves with the British.
    • Tecumseh unified area tribes to stop American expansion into Indiana and Illinois.
    • Gen. William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh at the Battle of Tippecanoe.
    • Tecumseh's brother, Tenskwatawa (the Prophet), led a revival of traditional Native American culture.
  • U.S. unprepared for war.
    • The British captured Washington, D.C., in 1814 and set the White House on fire.
    • The war ended in a stalemate; the Treaty of Ghent was signed in Belgium on December 24, 1814.
    • General Andrew Jackson won the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815, not knowing the was was officially over.
  • Hartford Convention:
    • Federalists met in Hartford, Connecticut, to discuss overhauling the Constitution or secession.
    • They proposed requiring a two-thirds majority in Congress for trade laws and admitting new states and limiting presidents to one term and preventing successive presidents from coming from the same state.
    • The end of the war discredited the Federalists, who were labeled as traitors, and the party dissolved.
  • Effects of the War of 1812:
    • Ended Native Americans' ability to stop American expansion.
    • The American economy became less reliant on trade with Britain.
    • Andrew Jackson became a celebrity, paving the way for his presidency, leading to national euphoria.
    • The war's popularity destroyed the Federalists, who had opposed it.
  • Madison's Nationalist Program:
    • Madison worked to promote national growth while adhering to Democratic-Republican principles.
    • He supported protective tariffs, interstate road improvements (including the National Road expansion), and the rechartering of the National Bank.
    • These programs were known as the American System, championed by Henry Clay.

Monroe's Presidency

  • Era of Good Feelings:
    • The demise of the Federalists led to a period of unity with only one political party.
    • Economic development and sectionalism continued to grow.
    • Chief Justice John Marshall's rulings continued to strengthen the federal government.
  • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819):
    • Ruled that states could not tax the National Bank, establishing the precedence of national law over state law, reaffirming the supremacy clause.
    • The opposition was trying to challenge the constitutionality of the Bank of the United States.
  • Panic of 1819:
    • A financial scare threw the American economy into turmoil due to economic growth, inflation, and land speculation.
    • The National Bank called in its loans, leading to mortgage foreclosures and business failures.
    • Monroe won reelection in 1820 despite the panic.
  • Postwar Expansion and Treaties:
    • John Quincy Adams acquired Florida from Spain via the Adams-Onís Treaty in 1819.
    • He handled international tensions from revolutions in Central and South America.
  • Monroe Doctrine:
    • A policy of mutual noninterference; Europe was told to stay out of the Americas, and the U.S. would stay out of European affairs.
    • It claimed America's right to intervene in its hemisphere if its security was threatened.
    • European nations (particularly Spain) lacked the power to challenge the Monroe Doctrine.
    • The powerful British navy enforced it.
    • The Monroe Doctrine secured American neutrality until World War I.
  • Missouri Compromise:
    • The new period of expansion led to a debate over slavery.
    • In 1820, there were 22 states: 11 slave and 11 free.
    • Missouri's application for statehood threatened the balance.
    • Henry Clay brokered the Missouri Compromise:
      • Missouri was admitted as a slave state.
      • Maine was carved out of Massachusetts and admitted as a free state.
        A line was drawn along the 36°30′36°30' parallel across the Louisiana Territory.
      • The southern border of Missouri became the northernmost point for slavery in the western territories.
    • The compromise forestalled the Civil War and split the Democratic-Republican coalition.
  • Adams-Onis Treaty stipulated that in exchange for Florida, the US would never try to take actions to gain Spanish-held Mexico. This was nullified when Mexico gained independence from Spain in the 1820s.

Political Events and Social Developments

  • Election of 1824:
    • Electors were increasingly chosen directly by voters.
    • Congressional caucuses nominated candidates, but with increased voter participation, this declined.
    • William H. Crawford was chosen by the Democratic-Republican caucus, but John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and Andrew Jackson challenged the nomination.
    • The accusations that party caucuses were undemocratic, brought about the demise of the caucus system.
    • Andrew Jackson received the most popular and electoral votes, but without a majority, the election was decided in the House of Representatives.
    • Clay, as Speaker of the House, supported Adams, giving him the victory.
    • Adams named Clay secretary of state, considered a gateway to the presidency.
    • Jackson and his supporters alleged a "corrupt bargain."
    • The Constitution stipulates that in cases where there is no majority winner in the Electoral College, the three top electoral winners go on to House election.

John Quincy Adams's Presidency

  • Postmillennialism
    * Postmillennialism was a belief, widespread among 19th-century Christians, that Jesus would return only after a thousand-year golden age brought about by humankind.
  • Adams's presidency was hindered by a hostile Congress that had initially supported Jackson.
  • Adams had proposals to impose new protective tariffs, build interstate highways, and establish federal schools and research centers. Although met with opposition he did go on to found a naval college and become an influential congressman.

The Jackson Presidency and Jacksonian Democracy

  • Jackson put together a support network to assure wide popular support, creating the modern-day Democratic Party.
  • The campaigns were vicious, with mudslinging from both sides.
  • Jackson won the election of 1828 by a large margin and who wasn't either born in Virginia or named Adams.
  • Jackson dismissed numerous government officials and replaced them with political supporters, leading to the spoils system.
  • Jacksonian democracy replaced Jeffersonian republicanism.
  • Jefferson sought a nation governed by middle- and upper-class educated property holders with a limited government.
  • Jacksonian democracy benefited from universal white manhood suffrage.
  • A strong presidency also characterized Jacksonian democracy.
    • Jackson challenged Congress and the Supreme Court.
    • Jacksonian democracy is not a coherent vision of government.
    • Jacksonian Democrats saw themselves as champions of liberty, but they did not always act as such.
  • Indian Removal Act of 1830:
    • Jackson's policy toward Native Americans was controversial.
    • It continued the British concept of treating Native Americans as "foreign nations."
    • Jefferson suggested assimilation as a solution to the "Indian Problem."
    • The "Five Civilized Tribes" lived in the South, including the Cherokee.
    • The Cherokees had developed a written language, converted to Christianity, and embraced agriculture.
    • They deemed themselves an independent republic within Georgia.
    • Gold was discovered on Cherokee land, leading to demands for their removal.
    • The Indian Removal Act required Native Americans to resettle in Oklahoma.
    • Jackson argued that moving away from white society was the best way to protect themselves from white encroachment and maintain their traditional customs.
    • The Cherokees refused and brought their case to the Supreme Court.
    • John Marshall sided with the Cherokees in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) and Worcester v. Georgia (1832).
    • Jackson refused to comply with the Court's decision.
    • Thousands of Cherokees were forced to walk to Oklahoma in the Trail of Tears (1835-1838), with many dying along the way.
    • The Seminole in Florida resisted removal, leading to the Seminole War, which the U.S. government eventually gave up on enabling them to stay on their land.
  • Nullification Crisis:
    • The doctrine of nullification holds that states can disobey federal laws they deem unconstitutional.
    • The Tariff of 1828 (Tariff of Abominations) led to a national crisis.
    • John C. Calhoun anonymously published, arguing that states could nullify the law.
    • Southern states discussed nullification because the tariffs hurt their trade with Britain.
    • Jackson, though a supporter of states' rights, opposed nullification.
    • South Carolina nullified the Tariff of 1832.
    • Jackson authorized a Force Bill, threatening to use troops to enforce the tariff.
  • Jackson's economic policies demonstrated his distrust of both big government and northeastern power brokers.
    • He spent much of his two terms "downsizing" the federal government and strengthening the office of the presidency through his extensive use of the presidential veto.
    • He fought against the reform movements of the time that called for increased government activism against social and economic problems.
    • He saw to it that the Second Bank of the United States (BUS) failed by vetoing Congress's attempt to recharter the bank and by withdrawing federal funds and depositing them in state "pet" banks. He felt that the BUS protected northeastern interests at the expense of the West.
    • He argued that the bank was an unconstitutional monopoly, but the Supreme Court ruled against him using a loose interpretation of the commerce clause (McCulloch v. Maryland, 1819).
    • He was also suspicious of paper money, preferring "hard currency" such as gold or silver. His Specie Circular, which ended the policy of selling government land on credit (buyers now had to pay "hard cash"), caused a money shortage and a sharp decrease in the treasury, and it helped trigger the Panic of 1837. Congress overturned the Circular in the last days of Jackson's final term.
    • Wildcat Banks sprang up and issued paper money with abandon. The government stopped accepting paper money in payment for land, and people realized that all their paper money was now nearly worthless-a recipe for a major depression.
  • Slavery grew to be an ever more controversial issue during the time of Jacksonian Democracy. As the northern abolition movement grew stronger, the south experienced several slave revolts, which resulted in the use of more brutal disciplinary measures by slaveholders.
    • Nat Turner's Rebellion led to stricter slave codes prohibiting Black people from congregating and learning to read.
    • After Turner's Rebellion, Virginia's House of Burgesses debated ending bondage but did not pass a law.

The Election of 1836 and the Rise of the Whigs

  • Jackson's Democratic party could not represent all constituencies, so the Whig Party was formed.
    • The Whigs were a loose coalition that opposed one or more of the Democrats' policies.
    • Many Whigs believed in government activism, were deeply religious, and supported the temperance movement.
  • In the election of 1836, Jackson supported Martin Van Buren, his second vice president.
  • Van Buren took office during the Panic of 1837 and worsened the situation by continuing Jackson's policy of favoring hard currency.
  • William Henry Harrison became the first Whig president in 1841, but he died a month later.
  • Vice President John Tyler, a former Democrat, championed states' rights, alienating the Whig leadership; and his whole cabinet resigned in protest.
  • Tyler is often referred to as the "president without a party," and his presidency lasted only one term.

Economic History (1800-1860)

  • These developments played an essential part in the political events that led to the civil war, and they helped to determine the different characteristics of the country's regions.
  • The section discusses economic developments in the United States during the first part of the 19th century.
  • These economic factors laid the foundation for issues that would be important to American society for the following century.

Beginnings of a Market Economy

  • Settlers initially raised crops for subsistence rather than for sale.
  • Manufacturing and transportation developments led to a market economy, where people traded labor or goods for cash.
  • Market economies favor specialization; monoculture farmers do better.
  • Market economies grow faster but are more prone to boom-and-bust cycles.
  • The War of 1812 forced the United States to become less dependent on imports, developing a stronger national economy.
  • Eli Whitney's cotton gin (1793) revolutionized southern agriculture, increasing cotton production and dependence on slave labor.
  • Whitney's interchangeable parts in manufacturing led to the machine-tool industry and assembly line production.

The North and the Textile Industry

  • Machine technology and the embargo on British goods spurred textile mill development in New England.
  • The first power loom (1813) allowed manufacturers to produce thread and fabric efficiently.
  • The Lowell system guaranteed employees housing, cash wages, and participation in social events until Irish immigration made factory labor plentiful.
  • Other industries, such as clothing manufacturing, retail, and commercial banking, grew around the textile industry.
  • Coal mining, too, became an important industry during this area.

The Transportation Revolution

  • Prior to the 1820s, east-west travel was difficult; the National Road and the Erie Canal (completed in 1825) improved travel and shipping.
  • Canals had to be doubled to handle the traffic of the Erie canal.
  • Funded entirely by the state of New York, the Erie Canal linked the Great Lakes region to New York and thus to European shipping routes.
  • Steamships became important freight carriers.
  • Railroads developed, and railway converted to compatible systems.
  • The telegraph allowed immediate long-distance communication.

Farming

  • Agriculture remained the most common source of livelihood.
  • Mechanization revolutionized farming with machines like the mechanical plow and cotton gin.
  • The growth of the market economy changed farming; food was grown for market.
  • The region's rocky, hilly terrain was unsuitable to many of the machines making farming on the plains easier and cheaper.
  • Midwestern farms were larger and more adaptable to new technology, becoming America's chief source of grains. Banks sprang up to lend farmers the capital necessary to buy modern equipment, and the trade routes created by rail and ship provided access to the markets these farmers needed to sell their crops in order to pay off their loans.
  • In the South, plantations focused primarily on cotton, especially in the Deep South; tobacco continued to be a major cash crop in the Upper South.

Westward Expansion

  • The Louisiana Purchase and the resolution of the War of 1812 facilitated westward settlement.
  • Americans believed they had a God-given right to western territories, known as America's Manifest Destiny.
  • Texas became an independent country after rebelling against Mexico, and tension was high regarding annexing it due to the issue of slavery. During this period that the famous battle at the Alamo was fought (1836). Texas was not admitted to the Union until 1845.
  • Settlers traveled to the Oregon Territory and the Willamette Valley; the Polk administration settled the territorial dispute with England. By the late 1840's new destination was California as a result of the Gold Rush of 1848.
  • In 1848, the discovery of gold in the California mountains set off the Gold Rush, attracting more than 100,000 people to the Golden State in just two years.
  • Most of these people did not strike it rich, but they settled the area after discovering that it was very hospitable to agriculture.

Economic Reasons for Regional Differences

  • North:
    • Became industrialized with advances in communications, transportation, industry, and banking.
    • Farming became less relevant, and legal slavery became less common.
  • South:
    • Agrarian, focused on tobacco and cotton.
    • Sought to expand slavery into new territories.
  • West:
    • Interests varied, rooted in commercial farming, fur trapping, and real-estate speculation.
    • Distrusted the North and South and wanted to avoid the slavery issue.

Social History, 1800-1860

  • The growth of the American economy in the early 19th century brought about numerous social changes.
  • The invention of the cotton gin, coupled with the advent of the Industrial Revolution in England, altered southern agriculture, resulting in the region's increased reliance on slave labor.
  • The development of commerce led to a larger middle class.
  • Westward migration created a new frontier culture. People's attitudes and ambitions and set the scene for the social and political events of the era were influenced by each of these sets of circumstances.

The North and American Cities

  • The North became the nation's industrial and commercial center.
  • American cities faced waste disposal, sanitation problems, and epidemics.
  • Cities offered jobs, public schooling, labor unions, clubs, and a variety of leisure-time options.
  • Wealth distribution was unequal, with a few elites, a growing middle class, and a working class living just above the poverty level.
  • The cult of domesticity emphasized that men should work while women kept house and raised children.
    Immigration Waves and Ethnic Tensions
  • Immigration waves from Ireland and Germany in the 1840s and 1850s led to tensions and riots.
  • This was in part responsible for the formation of municipal police departments.

The South and Rural Life

  • Most Southerners lived in rural areas with near isolation, and didn't have urban life support and structure.
  • Family, church, and limited infrastructure characterized social life.
  • As a result, the South didn't develop a strong market economy, as did the North.
  • Wealthy plantation owners dominated southern society.
  • Most Southerners owned small farms and did not own enslaved people.
  • Southern paternalism rationalized slavery, portraying Black people as childlike and unable to care for themselves.
  • Christianity was adapted by enslaved people, blending African roots with their new faith.
  • This was also in part of keep their enslaved people alive and reproducing. In addition, the purchase price of an enslaved person remained fairly high or even increased.
  • Enslaved people lived in a state of subsistence poverty, fearing the sale of family members and subjection to abuses.
  • They developed a unique culture, subtly resisted, and blended African traditions with elements of Christianity.
  • Most were of Scottish and Irish descent and farmed in the hills, which were unsuitable for plantation farming. They grew subsistence crops, raised livestock, and sometimes produced a few cash crops, though limited access to northern markets hindered profit making.
  • Landless whites farmed as tenants or hired themselves out as manual laborers.
  • Over 250,000 free Blacks lived in the South, facing restrictions and prejudice.
  • Slave codes prevented them from owning guns, drinking liquor, and assembling in groups of more than three (except in church).

The West and Frontier Living

  • The frontier's boundaries constantly changed.
  • The United States government actively encouraged settlers to move west.
  • Settlers in the Ohio Valley found the area hospitable to grain production and dairy farming.
  • Fur trading was another common commercial enterprise on the frontiers.
  • Frontier life was rugged, offering opportunities for wealth, freedom, and social advancement in the Ohio Valley.
  • Those women who could handle the difficulties of frontier life found their services in great demand, and many made a good living at domestic work and, later, running boardinghouses and hotels.
  • The West symbolized freedom and equality to many Americans.

Religious and Social Movements

  • Social reform movements grew out of the Second Great Awakening.
  • Women were inspired by the Second Great Awakening and became active leaders in their church communities.
  • Temperance societies formed to encourage people to pledge not to drink or to prohibit liquor.
  • Reform societies also helped bring about penitentiaries, asylums, and orphanages.
  • Asylums, orphanages, and houses of refuge for the poor were built to care for those who would previously have been imprisoned or run out of town.
  • Penitentiaries sought to rehabilitate criminals (rather than simply isolate them from society, as prisons do) by teaching them morality and a "work ethic."
  • The Shakers, a utopian group, advocated communal living, near-equal rights to women, and believed the end of the world was at hand. Sex was considered to be an instrument of evil by this group that practiced celibacy.
  • Brook Farm was home to the Transcendentalists.
  • Transcendentalists believed that humans contained elements of the divine, and thus they had faith in man's, and ultimately society's, perfectibility.
  • Transcendentalists drew their inspiration from European romanticism.
  • The Hudson River School painters sought to capture the beauty of wild America by painting landscapes.
  • The Mormons, led by Brigham Young, settled in the Salt Lake Valley and transformed the area through irrigation.
  • The reform movements led to the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848, where the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments of Women was published.
  • Horace Mann pushed for public education and education reform.
  • Mann lengthened the school year, established the first "normal school" for teacher training, and used the first standardized books in education and said "Education is the great equalizer."
  • While they persisted in the United States, many European Enlightenment thinkers criticized slavery and human rights grounds.
    • A member of the British Parliament, James Edward Oglethorpe, was among the first to argue against slavery.
    • Granville Sharp, Hannah More, and William Wilberforce were also famous abolitionists.

The Abolition Movement

  • The Quakers believed slavery to be morally wrong and argued for its end.
  • Before the 1830s, white people sought gradual abolition, coupled with colonization.
  • The American Colonization Society, established in 1816, sought to repatriate enslaved people to the newly formed country of Liberia in Africa.
  • The religious and moral fervor that accompanied the Second Great Awakening persuaded more and more.
  • The message that the abolitionist party spread did not go over well; some banning the newspaper, and others from discussing emancipation.
  • When congressional debate over slavery became too heated, Congress adopted a gag rule that automatically suppressed discussion of the issue.
  • His early subscribers were mostly free Black people, but as time passed, his paper caught on with white abolitionists as well.
  • William Lloyd Garrison began publishing the abolitionist newspaper The Liberator in 1831.
  • Abolition associations formed in every large Black community to assist fugitive enslaved people and publicize the struggle against slavery
  • The abolition movement existed prior to 1830, but it had been primarily supported by free Black people such as David Walker.
  • Black abolitionists included Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, and Sojourner Truth.
  • Abolitionists' determination and the South's inflexibility pushed the issue of slavery into the political spotlight.