Qualitative Research: Observation and Ethnography
Introduction to Observation and Ethnography
Today’s lecture focuses on the final two qualitative research methods: observation and ethnography.
Reading Materials: - Ethnography is covered in Chapter 3 of the textbook (the reading focus for the past few weeks). - Observation is covered in Lecture 6; students are instructed to read this for the current week.
Defining Observation
Core Philosophy: Observation is based on the premise that watching people’s actual behavior is a superior measure compared to asking people about their own behavior.
Limitations of Self-Reporting: - Individuals often struggle to accurately reflect on their past actions or future intentions. - There is a significant gap between reported intentions and actual behavior. - Meta-Analyses: Research shows that for most product categories, consumer intentions are not a reliable predictor of actual behavior.
Formal Definition: The systematic recording of people's behavior, physical objects, events, or activities that occur within a sequence.
Methodological Distinction: Unlike other qualitative techniques that rely on verbal communication, observation involves active counting or observing of actual behaviors. The researcher takes a passive role and avoids communication with the subjects.
Scope of Observational Data
Physical Movements: Tracking how people interact in a store, their movement patterns, and where they spend their time.
Verbal Behavior: Monitoring actions like the frequency of customer complaints.
Expressive Behavior: Observing the body language of individuals as they approach retail situations.
Spatial Tensions and Locations: Measuring the distance and locations of individuals, particularly in service encounters.
Temporal Patterns: Measuring wait times (e.g., at fast-food restaurants) or the average time taken to place an order.
Physical Objects: Using inventories and stock movements to learn about sales and product popularity.
Verbal or Pictorial Records: Analyzing content such as brand-related posts on Instagram.
Neurological Activities: Measuring brain activity or other physiological responses.
Internet Behavior: Gathering data on how individuals behave online.
Geophysical Behavior: Using GPS to learn about movement in a physical sense.
Physical Distribution: Tracking global trade, pathways, and product movement globally.
Limitation: Observation cannot reveal underlying attitudes, motivations, preferences, or the "why" behind behavior.
Characteristics of Observational Techniques
Structured vs. Unstructured: - Structured: The researcher enters with a clear intent and a predefined layout/form to count specific behaviors (e.g., a fast-food service checklist). - Unstructured: The researcher enters the situation without a fixed plan, waiting for relevant behaviors to occur. Fisher Price used this when developing toys by observing children's play. - Example: Fisher Price observed that educational toys (like those by competitors like Big Frog) were becoming popular. They developed the Jetta Bug, an outdoor toy that gives kids tasks based on their movement, because unstructured observation showed kids wanted interactive, outdoor play.
Open vs. Disguised (Awareness): - Open: Subjects know they are being watched, which may cause them to behave differently. - Disguised: Subjects are unaware of observation. Techniques include one-way mirrors, hidden cameras, or mystery shoppers. This is preferred for sensitive or embarrassing topics.
Natural vs. Contrived (Directness): - Natural: Observing behavior as it occurs in the real world (e.g., standard retail browsing). - Contrived: Creating an artificial situation to observe responses (e.g., a mystery shopper purposely making a complaint or a test kitchen setup). - Benefit of Contrived: Allows control and manipulation of variables that cannot be managed in natural settings.
Requirements for Natural Observation
Observable: The behavior must happen in a space where it can be legitimately seen.
Repetitive/Frequent: The behavior must occur often enough so the researcher isn't waiting indefinitely.
Short Duration: The behavior must be relatively brief to be practical for study.
Specific Observational Methods
Personal Observation: A human researcher physically watches behavior or records it on video. - Example: Observing interactions between adults and children during supermarket shopping. - Mystery shopping is a form of personal observation used to test staff responses to complaints.
Mechanical Observation: Use of machines to capture data humans might miss or to maintain unobtrusiveness. - Non-participative: Web tracking, scanner data, turnstile counts at sports events. - Participative (Psychophysiological): - Psychogalvanometer: Measures galvanic skin response to stimuli (e.g., ads). - MRIs: Used for brain scanning. - Eye Tracking: Measures what people look at on shelves or websites. Modern AI has made this less cumbersome than older headsets.
Audit: Counting physical objects to gain knowledge. - Pantry Audits: Going into homes to see exactly what consumers buy. This is often followed by interviews to explain choices. - Inventory Audits: Stocktaking in retail or restaurants to see which products sell and in what timeframe.
Content Analysis: Analyzing communication (words, language, themes) rather than physical objects. - Example: A colleague studied the portrayal of women in advertising over a period of years in Time Magazine to track cultural shifts. - Applicable to social media to analyze positive vs. negative brand sentiments.
Trace Analysis: Examining physical evidence of past behavior. - Chicago Museum of Science and Industry: Uses the erosion of floor tiles to determine which exhibits are most popular. - University of Arizona Rubbish Project: Archaeology students have sifted through trash since the . It reveals a gap between what people report (e.g., low alcohol/fast food intake) and what they actually consume. - Library Books: Checking the wear and tear of a book to estimate popularity. - Radio Settings: Using car radio positions to estimate the popularity of various stations.
Questions & Discussion
Students were asked to identify which of the five methods (personal, mechanical, audit, content, or trace) would solve specific marketing questions:
Q: A bank wants to know how many services they have and how many people use them? - A: Internal Audit.
Q: A state government wishes to determine the driving public's use of seat belts? - A: Content Analysis (as it is a form of visual communication analysis).
Q: A fast-food franchise wishes to determine how long a customer has to wait? - A: Personal Observation (since the behavior is frequent, repetitive, and short).
Q: A magazine publisher wishes to determine exactly what people look at or pass over while reading? - A: Eye Tracking (Mechanical).
Q: A food manufacturer wishes to determine how people use snack foods in their homes? - A: Mechanical Observation (e.g., setting up cameras with permission) because personal observation is too intrusive for private homes.
Evaluating Observation: Pros, Cons, and Ethics
Advantages: - Highly accurate regarding actual behavior; reduces self-reporting bias. - First-hand information is not influenced by an interviewer. - Only way to collect data from certain groups (e.g., young children). - Can be quick and cost-effective if behavior is frequent.
Disadvantages: - Cannot determine motives, attitudes, or the "why" behind behavior. - Can be time-consuming/expensive if behavior is infrequent. - Observer Bias: While there is no interviewer bias, there is bias in how the observer interprets behavior (body language, socioeconomic guesses) or how accurately they record notes.
Ethics: Observation is ethical if: 1. The behavior is performed in public where people expect to be watched. 2. The behavior is recorded with total anonymity. 3. Subjects have given prior permission.
Ethnography
Etymology: "Ethnos" (Greek for culture/race/group) and "Graphic" (writing/representing). It is a sub-discipline of descriptive anthropology.
Origins: Cultural anthropology. - Malawinsky: Spent years in the South Pacific during WWI, immersing himself in local culture without knowing the language. - PMF Path: Studied death rituals in Borneo through immersion.
Aims: To see through the eyes of the subjects. - Contextualism: Understanding the “situatedness” of behavior. - Intersubjectivity: Becoming part of the community to understand their world.
Techniques: - Participant Observation: Direct involvement in a community or organization (e.g., studying management change from within). - Informal Interviews: Casual conversations gathered over a prolonged period. - Informant Diaries: Subjects record their own thoughts/actions for later review by the researcher.
Case Study: Rob Cosnet: A Canadian PhD student who studied Star Trek fan culture for months. - He started by consuming all movies/TV series and eventually became the secretary for the national executive of a fan community.
Modern Variations: - Netnography: Online ethnography observing digital communities (fans, brand enthusiasts). - Mobile Ethnography (Life Logging): Using wearable cameras (e.g., a -day study on children) to record real-time behavior at events or festivals.
Applications in Business: - New Product Development: Henry Ford once said, "If I asked my customer what they wanted, they would have said a faster horse." Ethnography finds unmet needs. - Complex Settings: Observing an Emergency Room for to months to understand bottlenecks. - Brand Symbolism: Understanding the rituals and deep meanings within brand communities.
Final Announcements
Case Competition: Seeking participants to gain experience for their CVs.
Class Reps: The lecturer is still seeking class representatives and asks for volunteers to email or come forward.