Theories of Motivation

What is Motivation?

  • Motivation is a need or desire that serves to energize behavior.

  • Behavior is guided by both physiological and psychological needs/desires.

  • Motivation is inferred from observed behaviors (non-verbal communication).

Theories of Motivation

Theory 1: Instinct

  • Instinct: a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

  • Such behaviors are common in other species (Imprinting in birds & the return of salmon).

  • Sociologists began to name human instinct but they did not explain them.

  • Instinct can be linked to motivation.

Internal Motivation

  • Imagine being locked in a room for 24 hours or longer without water; this creates…

Drive

  • Drive: a type of motivation that is experienced as an aroused state of psychological/physiological tension caused by some need.

    • Ex: Sex Drive

  • Drives motivate us to do something.

  • The goal of our body, according to some psychologists, is to ELIMINATE all drives so that we can experience homeostasis.

    • Homeostasis: a balanced or constant internal state that the body regulates.

Theory 2: Drive Reduction Theory

  • Drive Reduction Theory: idea that physiological needs create tension states (drives) which motivates organism to satisfy the need.

    • Ex: Thirstiness (physiological need) creates tension state (drive) which motivates you to get water.

    • After you drink, the drive is reduced and you are closer to homeostasis.

Theory 3: Incentives Theory

  • Incentives: a positive or negative ENVIRONMENTAL (external) stimulus that motivates behavior apart from "need" to reduce drives.

    • Ex: money, etc.

  • Need → Drive → Drive-reducing behaviors

  • When there is a need and an incentive, there's a strong feeling driven.

Theory 4: Arousal Theory

  • Based on 2 basic ideas:

    • Individuals perform tasks at different levels of arousal (wakefulness/stress).

    • Each individual seeks to find its optimal level of arousal to perform tasks and to avoid boredom.

  • Motivation to maintain arousal.

  • Arousal: a state of physiological and psychological alertness, ranging from calm to highly stimulated.

  • Optimal arousal: the psychological state where mental stimulation is at a level that maximizes performance, learning, and well-being.

    • Being “in the zone”

  • People with high levels of optimal arousal may be more susceptible to thrill-seeking activities while those with low levels may seek out more relaxing quiet activities.

Yerkes-Dodson Principle of Arousal

  • States basic/general tasks are completed best with a moderate level of arousal.

  • Relationship between Task Type and Arousal


ewline Performance = \begin{cases} High, & \text{Easy tasks with High Arousal} \newline Moderate, & \text{Easy tasks with Low Arousal} \newline Moderate, & \text{Difficult tasks with Low Arousal} \newline Low, & \text{Difficult tasks with High Arousal} \end{cases}

Theory 5: Self-Determination Theory

  • Self-Determination: a person's ability to make choices and manage their own life

  • Seeks to explain how being self-determined impacts motivation—that people feel more motivated to take action when they think that what they do will have an effect on the outcome

  • Shows up in either need for GROWTH or gain FULFILLMENT

    • Intrinsic Motivation: the drive to engage in activities because they are inherently interesting or enjoyable, stemming from internal desires like personal satisfaction or curiosity

    • Extrinsic Motivation: the drive to perform and succeed for the sake of obtaining a separate outcome, such as external rewards like money, praise, or recognition

  • Intrinsic motivation has more positive results than extrinsic motivation according to various studies.

  • Extrinsic and Intrinsic motivation can work together

    • A college student working so they can pay for their college education is extrinsically motivated to earn money, but intrinsically motivated to receive a college education.

Problems with Extrinsic Motivation

  • External motivation can wane over time, which is an issue. Also, if the incentive disappears, will they continue to complete the job?

    • My mother use to treat me to ice cream after piano lessons, but then stopped. Shortly after, so did the lessons.

    • Evidence suggests that removing the extrinsic motivator will result in lower levels of motivation than before the reward existed.

Overjustification Effect

  • Overjustification Effect: a phenomenon in which being offered an external reward for doing something we enjoy diminishes our intrinsic motivation to perform that action

    • This can explain why people lose interests in hobbies if they decide to monetize them- i.e. you enjoy drawing/making art but once you start selling your art, you lose the internal (intrinsic) motivation to keep doing art

  • Why?

    • One theory is that people tend to pay more attention to external rewards rather than their enjoyment of the activity

    • Another possible explanation is that people sometimes view external reinforcement as a coercive force (AKA you’re being forced to do the task, rather than doing it because you enjoy it)

The Self-Determination Continuum

  • Includes Amotivation, Extrinsic Motivation (External, Introjected, Identified, Integrated Regulation) and Intrinsic Motivation

Achievement Motivation

  • The drive to succeed and excel, encompassing the desire to overcome obstacles, master difficult challenges, and achieve high standards

  • One study in California followed 1,528 children from school through their 40's. By their early 20's, top violinists have practiced some 10,000 lifetime practice hours – double the practice time of other violin students aiming to be a violin teacher

  • High Achievement Motivation = more discipline, willingness, and persistence