Semester 2 Final

Mammals defining characteristics mammary glands
mammary glands milk producing
Endothermic regular your body temperature with metabolism
Placenta Nutrients diffuse from mother to embryo
Marsupial mammals Partial internal fertilization and partially external
Monotremes lay eggs
Eutherian placenta
Homonids humans and close relatives
Primates fingers + toes are long + flexible grasp. Eyes directly forward = depth perception, bear 1 baby, advanced brains
Primates defining characteristics Opposable thumb
Opposable thumb touch every finger with you thumb, used for grasping and precise manipulation.
2 groups of primates Prosimians & anthropoids
Prosimians Pre-monkey/lemurs/arboreal (live in trees)
Anthropoids Monkey/apes/humans
Ardipithecus Ramidus (Ardi) 4.4 MYO hominid, walk up-right, still in trees, brain as Chimp
Australopithecus Large teeth, small brain, short body, long arms, sexual dimorphism
Sexual dismorphism Male larger than female
Lucy An Australopithecus, 3.2 MYA, found in Ethiopia in 1974, 1m tall, projected face
Homo Habilis Earliest fossils in our genus, 2.4 MYA, stone tools used first, name “Handy man”
Homo Ergaster 1.9 MYA, size of modern humans, brain size 2x of apes (1/2 of modern humans)
Homo. erectus 1.8 MYA, made large stone hand axes, used fire, left Africa by walking
Neanderthals Larger worn teeth, DID NOT EVOLVE FROM THEM, shorter more robust, 400,000 to 38,000 YA, had a culture, reproduced with them
Homo Sapien first in Africa (195,000 YA), first out of Africa (115,000 YA), first in new world (15,000 YA), larger brains, reduced sizes between sexes
Out of Africa theory homo eructus in africa - left Africa, homo sapient in Africa only - left and killed Erectus
Multiregional theory homo erectus in africa - left Africa, homo sapient in multiple continents - left and killed Erectus and traveled between the 2
Hominoid great apes + humans
Bipidol walking on 2 feet

Cancer abnormal growth of cells
what is cancer caused by mutations and too much cell division, not enough apoptosis
#1 risk factor of cancer getting old
apoptosis programed cell death
tumor mass of cells with no function
3 types of tumors benign, malignant, metastasis
Benign abnormal cells remain at site (not cancerous)
Malignant abnormal cells may spread to other areas of the body
Metastasis cancer cells spread to new locations in the body
Causes of cancer UV light, genetics, radiation, carcinogens
carcinogens chemicals in cigarettes, environmental chemicals.
3 characteristics of cancer lose contact inhibition, lose anchorage dependence, & immortal
lose contact inhibition when it grows and hits a friend and divides
lose anchorage dependence grow without being anchored to anything
Immortal won’t die, supplied with nutrients
3 common ways to treat cancer surgery, chemo, radiation
chemo toxin that kills any fast reproducing cell
radiation laser that only kills one area
cancer genes oncogenes, proto-oncogenes
oncogenes cancer causing genes
proto-oncogenes normal, good genes which regulate cell division
tumor supressor genes help prevent uncontrolled cell growth
example of tumor suppressor gene p53 gene & BRAC1 & BRAC2
Is cancer inheritable no
Why do cells divide growth and repair
What is cell division 2 new daughter cells, genetically identical, reduces cell volume
chromosomes made up of DNA carries cells genetic info (23 pairs, 46 total)
Chromatids loose DNA, consist of 2 identical sister chromosomes
Centromere connects 2 chromatids
Cell cycle steps Interphase, Mitosis, Cytokinesis
Interphase cell grows and makes copy of DNA
Phases of interphase G1, S, G2
G1 phase cell growth
S phase replication
G2 phase prep for mitosis
Mitosis divides nucleus
cytokinesis divides cytoplasm
What do checkpoints do ensure everything is where it needs to be, if not apoptosis occurs
G0 phase a cell that a is not dividing (brain cells)
Product of Mitosis 2 genetically identical, somatic, diploid cells
somatic body
diploid 2 sets of chromosomes (all body cells)
haploid 1 set of chromosomes (egg/sperm)
Mitosis cycle prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
prophase nuclear membrane goes away, spindles form,
spindle fibers move chromosomes
metaphase replicate chromosome, line up middle cell
anaphase sister chromatids pulled apart by spindle fibers
telophase nuclear membrane reforms
cytokinesis divides cytoplasm, Animals: pinch apart, Plants: cut by cell plate (cell wall)

Cell smallest unit capable of performing life functions
cell theory all living things are made up of cells, smallest working unit of living things, al cells come from other cells
prokaryotic bacteria, no membrane bound organelles, smaller, less complex
eukaryotic nucleus, animals, plants, fungus, and protists
cell parts in all cells ribosomes, cell membrane, & cytoplasm
ribosomes makes protein
cell membrane regulates what gets in and out (selectively permeable)
chloroplast site of photosynthesis
mitochondria site of cellular respirations, makes ATP
cell wall (plants only) protect
nucleus ribosomes made
rough er make proteins
smooth er make lipids
Golgi bodies package, sort & ship proteins
lysosome intracellular digestions (must digest cells)
vacuole plant - large to store H2O, animal - small to store food & H2O
cytoplasm semi-liquid
hydrophilic water loving (heads)
hydrophobic water hating (tails)
transport good in, bad out. take in O2 get out CO2
homeostasis constant environment (body temp)
2 kinds of transport active & passive
active low to high, requires energy
passive high to love, no energy
diffusion high to low, no energy, no protein
osmosis diffusion of water, no protein, no energy, high to low
3 concentrations of osmosis isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic
isotonic same concentration in cell and solution
hypotonic cell has greater concentration (swell/explode)
hypertonic solution has greater concentration (shrink/shrivel, sad all)
lyse explode
facilitated diffusion high to low, no energy, has protein (substances that are to large to pass through membrane) (glucose big)
types of active transport cell membrane pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis
cell membrane pumps pumps Na+/K+
endocytosis bringing in big things
exocytosys taking out big things

What does DNA stand for? Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
What is Deoxyribose A sugar molecule without an oxygen atom
2 primary function of DNA store and use information to direct activities of cell and copy itself exactly for new cell that are created
Monomers of DNA nucleotides
What is the structure of DNA made of Polymers and 2 long strand of nucleotide monomers
3 parts of nucleotides 5 carbon sugar called deoxyribose, phosphate group, and nitrogen bas
What is the same in every nucleotide? Sugar molecule and phosphate groups
What are the 4 nitrogen bases Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Thymine (T), & Cytosine (C)
Which nitrogen bases are purines? Adenine and Guanine
What are purines composed of double ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms
Which nitrogen bases are pyrimidines? Thymine and Cytosine
What are pyrimidines composed of single ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms
Which nitrogen bases bond together A-T & G-C
How does long strands form Nucleotide bonds to another
How do 2 strands bond together Hydrogen bonds that attach the nitrogen bases
What are the rails of the ladder made of deoxyribose and phosphate groups
What are the rungs of the ladder made of nitrogen bases
Another name for the twisted ladder double helix
Who discovered the DNA structure James Watson and Francis Crick
When did they discover the DNA structure 1953
Where is DNA found in the cell nucleus
Replication process of copying DNA in a cell
What happens during replication? 2 nucleotide chains separate by unwinding and serves as a template for the new chain
3 reasons you body replicates DNA growth, repair, and reproduction
What does a helices enzyme do unwinds the DNA’s two chains of nucleotides
What does a polymerase enzyme do bind to the separated chains and contracts a complementary chain of nucleotides
at the end of replication what is the product 2 identical copies of the original DNA molecule (one original chain and one new chain)
Which way does DNA always replicate in? 5’ to 3’
What is DNA ligase glues lagging strand together
leading strand continuous in 5’ to 3’ move towards replication fork
lagging strand discontinuously, moves away from replication fork
Replication fork point at which the two strands of DNA are separated to allow replication of each strand (looks like a zipper)
Where is DNA located Nucleus
What is transcription copying a section of DNA into RNA
Where does transcription occur? Nucleus of eukaryotes
What is translation converting information in the base sequence of RNA into amino acid sequence
Where does translation occur Ribosome in cytoplasm
3 types of RNA mRNA, tRNA, & rRNA
what does mRNA stand for messenger RNA (take info from DNA to ribosomes)
what does tRNA stand for transfer RNA (brings amino acids to ribosomes)
what does rRNA stand for Ribosomal RNA (ribosome - little circle where proteins made)
How is RNA synthesized compared to DNA complementary
What replace thymine in RNA Uracil
What enzyme is RNA made by RNA polymerase
What does RNA polymerase bind to DNA at promoter
What does RNA polymerase do unwinds DNA and makes complementary copy of one strand of the DNA
What does the promoter do signifies which strand is the template (coding) strand
What makes the promoter less/more active transcription factors
What is mRNA used to make? proteins
3 ways mRNA is modified 5’ cap, Poly A, Splicing
what is 5’ cap modifies G to tell where to start translation
what is Poly A 150-200 A to inhibit degradation
what is splicing cutting out the introns and putting together exons
what are introns non coding DNA
what are exons coding DNA
what is alternative splicing putting together the exons in different orders
where does mRNA go once made from nucleus to cytoplasm
what does tRNA contain anticodon of RNA that complements mRNA sequence
What is a codon three base pairs of mRNA
What does each codon do? encodes for an amino acid
What is universal virtually all organisms use the same genetic code
What is redundant same amino acid may be encoded by multiple combinations of letters
What is the start of the codon AUG
What do all proteins begin translation with methionine amino acid
what does a stop codon do? A site causes release factor to release tRNA at P site
What happens when the ribosome disassembles polypeptide and mRNA gets released.
What is a mutation change in genetic material which changes the protein
Point mutations change in single base pair
Silent redundancy in code inserts the same amino acid at that position
Missense Inserts another amino acid
Nonsense creates a stop codon, premature termination
Frameshift mutation causes change in the protein
Insertion inserting one or more bases
Deletion deletes one or more base pairs