Semester 2 Final

Mammals defining characteristics mammary glands mammary glands milk producing Endothermic regular your body temperature with metabolism Placenta Nutrients diffuse from mother to embryo Marsupial mammals Partial internal fertilization and partially external Monotremes lay eggs Eutherian placenta Homonids humans and close relatives Primates fingers + toes are long + flexible grasp. Eyes directly forward = depth perception, bear 1 baby, advanced brains Primates defining characteristics Opposable thumb Opposable thumb touch every finger with you thumb, used for grasping and precise manipulation. 2 groups of primates Prosimians & anthropoids Prosimians Pre-monkey/lemurs/arboreal (live in trees) Anthropoids Monkey/apes/humans Ardipithecus Ramidus (Ardi) 4.4 MYO hominid, walk up-right, still in trees, brain as Chimp Australopithecus Large teeth, small brain, short body, long arms, sexual dimorphism Sexual dismorphism Male larger than female Lucy An Australopithecus, 3.2 MYA, found in Ethiopia in 1974, 1m tall, projected face Homo Habilis Earliest fossils in our genus, 2.4 MYA, stone tools used first, name “Handy man” Homo Ergaster 1.9 MYA, size of modern humans, brain size 2x of apes (1/2 of modern humans) Homo. erectus 1.8 MYA, made large stone hand axes, used fire, left Africa by walking Neanderthals Larger worn teeth, DID NOT EVOLVE FROM THEM, shorter more robust, 400,000 to 38,000 YA, had a culture, reproduced with them Homo Sapien first in Africa (195,000 YA), first out of Africa (115,000 YA), first in new world (15,000 YA), larger brains, reduced sizes between sexes Out of Africa theory homo eructus in africa - left Africa, homo sapient in Africa only - left and killed Erectus Multiregional theory homo erectus in africa - left Africa, homo sapient in multiple continents - left and killed Erectus and traveled between the 2 Hominoid great apes + humans Bipidol walking on 2 feet

Cancer abnormal growth of cells what is cancer caused by mutations and too much cell division, not enough apoptosis #1 risk factor of cancer getting old apoptosis programed cell death tumor mass of cells with no function 3 types of tumors benign, malignant, metastasis Benign abnormal cells remain at site (not cancerous) Malignant abnormal cells may spread to other areas of the body Metastasis cancer cells spread to new locations in the body Causes of cancer UV light, genetics, radiation, carcinogens carcinogens chemicals in cigarettes, environmental chemicals. 3 characteristics of cancer lose contact inhibition, lose anchorage dependence, & immortal lose contact inhibition when it grows and hits a friend and divides lose anchorage dependence grow without being anchored to anything Immortal won’t die, supplied with nutrients 3 common ways to treat cancer surgery, chemo, radiation chemo toxin that kills any fast reproducing cell radiation laser that only kills one area cancer genes oncogenes, proto-oncogenes oncogenes cancer causing genes proto-oncogenes normal, good genes which regulate cell division tumor supressor genes help prevent uncontrolled cell growth example of tumor suppressor gene p53 gene & BRAC1 & BRAC2 Is cancer inheritable no Why do cells divide growth and repair What is cell division 2 new daughter cells, genetically identical, reduces cell volume chromosomes made up of DNA carries cells genetic info (23 pairs, 46 total) Chromatids loose DNA, consist of 2 identical sister chromosomes Centromere connects 2 chromatids Cell cycle steps Interphase, Mitosis, Cytokinesis Interphase cell grows and makes copy of DNA Phases of interphase G1, S, G2 G1 phase cell growth S phase replication G2 phase prep for mitosis Mitosis divides nucleus cytokinesis divides cytoplasm What do checkpoints do ensure everything is where it needs to be, if not apoptosis occurs G0 phase a cell that a is not dividing (brain cells) Product of Mitosis 2 genetically identical, somatic, diploid cells somatic body diploid 2 sets of chromosomes (all body cells) haploid 1 set of chromosomes (egg/sperm) Mitosis cycle prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis prophase nuclear membrane goes away, spindles form, spindle fibers move chromosomes metaphase replicate chromosome, line up middle cell anaphase sister chromatids pulled apart by spindle fibers telophase nuclear membrane reforms cytokinesis divides cytoplasm, Animals: pinch apart, Plants: cut by cell plate (cell wall)

Cell smallest unit capable of performing life functions cell theory all living things are made up of cells, smallest working unit of living things, al cells come from other cells prokaryotic bacteria, no membrane bound organelles, smaller, less complex eukaryotic nucleus, animals, plants, fungus, and protists cell parts in all cells ribosomes, cell membrane, & cytoplasm ribosomes makes protein cell membrane regulates what gets in and out (selectively permeable) chloroplast site of photosynthesis mitochondria site of cellular respirations, makes ATP cell wall (plants only) protect nucleus ribosomes made rough er make proteins smooth er make lipids Golgi bodies package, sort & ship proteins lysosome intracellular digestions (must digest cells) vacuole plant - large to store H2O, animal - small to store food & H2O cytoplasm semi-liquid hydrophilic water loving (heads) hydrophobic water hating (tails) transport good in, bad out. take in O2 get out CO2 homeostasis constant environment (body temp) 2 kinds of transport active & passive active low to high, requires energy passive high to love, no energy diffusion high to low, no energy, no protein osmosis diffusion of water, no protein, no energy, high to low 3 concentrations of osmosis isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic isotonic same concentration in cell and solution hypotonic cell has greater concentration (swell/explode) hypertonic solution has greater concentration (shrink/shrivel, sad all) lyse explode facilitated diffusion high to low, no energy, has protein (substances that are to large to pass through membrane) (glucose big) types of active transport cell membrane pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis cell membrane pumps pumps Na+/K+ endocytosis bringing in big things exocytosys taking out big things

What does DNA stand for? Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid What is Deoxyribose A sugar molecule without an oxygen atom 2 primary function of DNA store and use information to direct activities of cell and copy itself exactly for new cell that are created Monomers of DNA nucleotides What is the structure of DNA made of Polymers and 2 long strand of nucleotide monomers 3 parts of nucleotides 5 carbon sugar called deoxyribose, phosphate group, and nitrogen bas What is the same in every nucleotide? Sugar molecule and phosphate groups What are the 4 nitrogen bases Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Thymine (T), & Cytosine (C) Which nitrogen bases are purines? Adenine and Guanine What are purines composed of double ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms Which nitrogen bases are pyrimidines? Thymine and Cytosine What are pyrimidines composed of single ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms Which nitrogen bases bond together A-T & G-C How does long strands form Nucleotide bonds to another How do 2 strands bond together Hydrogen bonds that attach the nitrogen bases What are the rails of the ladder made of deoxyribose and phosphate groups What are the rungs of the ladder made of nitrogen bases Another name for the twisted ladder double helix Who discovered the DNA structure James Watson and Francis Crick When did they discover the DNA structure 1953 Where is DNA found in the cell nucleus Replication process of copying DNA in a cell What happens during replication? 2 nucleotide chains separate by unwinding and serves as a template for the new chain 3 reasons you body replicates DNA growth, repair, and reproduction What does a helices enzyme do unwinds the DNA’s two chains of nucleotides What does a polymerase enzyme do bind to the separated chains and contracts a complementary chain of nucleotides at the end of replication what is the product 2 identical copies of the original DNA molecule (one original chain and one new chain) Which way does DNA always replicate in? 5’ to 3’ What is DNA ligase glues lagging strand together leading strand continuous in 5’ to 3’ move towards replication fork lagging strand discontinuously, moves away from replication fork Replication fork point at which the two strands of DNA are separated to allow replication of each strand (looks like a zipper) Where is DNA located Nucleus What is transcription copying a section of DNA into RNA Where does transcription occur? Nucleus of eukaryotes What is translation converting information in the base sequence of RNA into amino acid sequence Where does translation occur Ribosome in cytoplasm 3 types of RNA mRNA, tRNA, & rRNA what does mRNA stand for messenger RNA (take info from DNA to ribosomes) what does tRNA stand for transfer RNA (brings amino acids to ribosomes) what does rRNA stand for Ribosomal RNA (ribosome - little circle where proteins made) How is RNA synthesized compared to DNA complementary What replace thymine in RNA Uracil What enzyme is RNA made by RNA polymerase What does RNA polymerase bind to DNA at promoter What does RNA polymerase do unwinds DNA and makes complementary copy of one strand of the DNA What does the promoter do signifies which strand is the template (coding) strand What makes the promoter less/more active transcription factors What is mRNA used to make? proteins 3 ways mRNA is modified 5’ cap, Poly A, Splicing what is 5’ cap modifies G to tell where to start translation what is Poly A 150-200 A to inhibit degradation what is splicing cutting out the introns and putting together exons what are introns non coding DNA what are exons coding DNA what is alternative splicing putting together the exons in different orders where does mRNA go once made from nucleus to cytoplasm what does tRNA contain anticodon of RNA that complements mRNA sequence What is a codon three base pairs of mRNA What does each codon do? encodes for an amino acid What is universal virtually all organisms use the same genetic code What is redundant same amino acid may be encoded by multiple combinations of letters What is the start of the codon AUG What do all proteins begin translation with methionine amino acid what does a stop codon do? A site causes release factor to release tRNA at P site What happens when the ribosome disassembles polypeptide and mRNA gets released. What is a mutation change in genetic material which changes the protein Point mutations change in single base pair Silent redundancy in code inserts the same amino acid at that position Missense Inserts another amino acid Nonsense creates a stop codon, premature termination Frameshift mutation causes change in the protein Insertion inserting one or more bases Deletion deletes one or more base pairs