The Beginnings of European Settlement: English Colonial Ambition and Early North American Colonies

The Origins of English Ambition and Economic Context

• Importance of English Colonization: The study of North American settlement focuses primarily on the English, as their presence had the greatest impact on the eventual development of the United States.

  • Scope of Study: While the English are the primary focus, the explorations and settlements of the Spanish, Dutch, and French are also acknowledged as part of the broader North American context.

  • Economic Drivers: England's interest in North America was driven by growing economic strength during the $16^{\text{th}}$ century.

  • Economic Diversification: The nation was transitioning from an economy dependent on agricultural production to one rooted in industry and mercantile business.

  • International Trade: England became increasingly dependent on international trade, prompting the need for expansion and the establishment of new markets.

Religious Instability and the Elizabethan Era

• The Reign of Queen Elizabeth: England's colonial ambitions took shape during the reign of Queen Elizabeth ($1558$–$1602$), the daughter of Henry VIII.

• Legacy of Henry VIII: Henry VIII had famously rebelled against the authority of the Roman Catholic Church, declaring England's independence and establishing the monarch as the head of religious life.

  • Succession Concerns: Due to Henry VIII's unstable personal and family life, the heredity of the English throne was in doubt following his death until Elizabeth's assumption of power in $1558$.

• Elizabethan Stability: Elizabeth reigned for $44$ years, a period characterized by paramount royal authority. Her reign provided:

  • A solid national identity for England.

  • Stability in both religious and political life.

  • The necessary foundation for England to expand its rivalry with Spain and pursue interests in colonization.

• The Church of England: Elizabeth formalised the rebellion against Rome by forming the Church of England (an Anglican or Protestant church), with herself as the head. This tradition of the monarch leading the church remains in place today.

• The Protestant Reformation: This broader European movement saw the rise of religious thoughts that rivaled Roman Catholicism.

  • Martin Luther: Originating in Germany, Luther led the protest against the Catholic Church to bring about religious reform. The term "Protestant" is rooted in this act of protest.

  • Religious Conflict as a Driver: Spain, as the champion of Roman Catholicism, became highly antagonistic toward Protestant England. Consequently, the rivalry between the two nations was fueled by both economic competition and deep-seated religious differences.

Socio-Economic Transformations and the Inception of English Colonialism

• The Decline of Feudalism: The late $1500\text{s}$ saw a shift away from traditional feudal structures in England.

  • Changing Allegiances: Feudalism originally involved an attachment to land and a lord of the manor based on fidelity, including military service and protection.

  • Shift to Financial Relationships: The relationship evolved into a financial or economic one, where tenants paid for the right to use land rather than owing personal allegiance or military service.

• Rise of the Middle Class: As feudal ties loosened, people sought opportunity in towns, cities, mercantile firms, and industry. This mobility allowed individuals from lower or subservient classes to move into a burgeoning middle class.

• New Capital for Adventure: The wealth generated from these new economic sources was used to fund colonial expeditions as business ventures.

• The Influence of Richard Hocklett (also referred to as Hacklet or Hakluyt):

  • He was a leading proponent of English colonialism and a prolific writer of articles and pamphlets.

  • Major Works: He authored pieces such as Touching the Discovery of America and The Principles, Navigations, Voyages, Traffics, Discoveries of the English Nation.

  • Impact: His writings were highly influential within the government and the monarchy, inspiring a generation of adventurers to pursue colonization in North America.

The Anglo-Spanish Rivalry and the Defeat of the Spanish Armada

• England's Initial Inferiority: In the early years of Elizabeth's reign, England was in an inferior position compared to the dominant Spanish empire.

  • Destabilization Efforts: England attempted to throw Spain off balance by supporting a Protestant monarch in France and aiding Dutch rebels in the Netherlands against Spanish rule.

• The Irish Conflict: Ireland remained staunchly Roman Catholic. Spain supported the Irish in their opposition to English rule, leading Elizabeth to view Ireland as an agent of Spain.

  • Retaliation: Elizabeth attempted to weaken Spanish influence in Ireland by forcibly settling people from Scotland there and turning lands over to Protestants.

• State-Sanctioned Piracy: Elizabeth authorized English privateers (pirates) to raid Spanish sea traffic. Their primary targets were ships carrying gold and silver from the New World.

  • Perception: These privateers were celebrated as heroes in England but condemned as outlaws by the Spanish.

• The Spanish Armada ($1588$): To eliminate English competition, Spain launched a massive fleet of warships—the Armada—to invade England.

  • Result: England met the Armada in the English Channel and defeated it.

• A Turning Point in World History: The defeat of the Armada represents a "tipping point."

  • Pattern of Power: World powers eventually decline through internal conflict and financial strain, becoming vulnerable to rivals. England's rise coincided with Spain's erosion.

  • Outcome: While Spain remained strong, England took the lead as the dominant European power, clearing the path for its role as a colonial powerhouse.

Early Colonial Efforts and Business Structures

• Preliminary Explorations:

  • Sir Humphrey Gilbert: Conducted a voyage in $1578$ and $1579$ with the aim of establishing a base against the Spanish in the New World.

  • Sir Walter Raleigh: Gilbert's half-brother, Raleigh supported expeditions and accompanied at least one to North America. He established a colony at Rhode Island (as identified in the transcript), which suffered from inconsistent support and eventually disappeared, presumably following an attack by Native Americans.

• The Joint Stock Company: A vital economic institution that preceded the modern corporate structure.

  • Mechanism: A group of investors pooled their resources to support a single business. These investors received dividends or profits when the company's gains exceeded its losses.

  • Role in Colonization: These companies were used to fund and organize colonial adventures. This method was also extensively used by the Dutch in the Netherlands.

The Settlement of Virginia: Jamestown and the Rise of Tobacco

• Land Grants: The English monarch claimed land in North America and, following feudal tradition, granted its use to companies.

• The Virginia Company of London: Received land roughly south of what is now Washington D.C.

• The Virginia Company of Plymouth: Received land roughly north of what is now New York City.

• The Founding of Jamestown ($1607$): Established under the authority of the Virginia Company of London.

  • Initial Economic Goal: Similar to the Spanish, the early English colonists sought gold.

  • Social Composition: The first colonists were largely young men and adventurers looking for quick wealth rather than a permanent settlement.

• Early Struggles and the "Starving Time":

  • Resource Scarcity: Very little gold was found. While low-grade gold exists in Virginia, it was insufficient for profit.

  • Lack of Sustenance: Colonists prioritized gold-hunting over farming. Following the first year ($1607$), more than half of the population died from starvation and diseases related to malnutrition.

  • Captain John Smith: Arrived with supply ships and established a strict dictatorship to ensure survival. However, his frequent absences led to renewed dissension.

  • $1609$ Famine: Another year of starvation occurred due to poor planning.

• Introduction of Tobacco:

  • The colony stabilized after experimenting with silk, flax, hemp, and exotic fruits.

  • John Rolfe: Introduced tobacco as a cash crop in $1612$.

  • Economic Impact: By $1618$, export reached $20,000$ pounds per year. By $1628$, it rose to $50,000$ pounds annually, ensuring the colony's economic survival.

Legislative History and Native American Relations in Virginia

• Establishment of Government: As families replaced single young men and permanent roots were established, government stabilized.

  • $1619$ General Assembly: The first legislature in the English colonies, representing the people rather than just the company.

  • $1624$ Royal Colony: Virginia was brought under the direct control of the English government.

• Conflict with Native Americans: Growing populations led to an increased demand for land, causing friction.

  • Powhatan Confederacy: Initially, colonists had good relations with Powhatan, leader of a confederacy led by the Pamunkey.

  • Early $1620\text{s}$ Raids: Native American raids led to brutal retaliation by the English.

  • Oba Chicanha Indians: An uprising mid-$17^{\text{th}}$ century was suppressed by colonists.

• Patterns of Displacement: A cycle evolved that would last until the end of the $19^{\text{th}}$ century.

  • Increased European populations led to tension/violence.

  • Native Americans generally lost these conflicts.

  • Treaties were signed where Native Americans ceded land.

  • Misunderstandings: European groups (e.g., people of Maryland) often felt they weren't bound by Virginia's treaties, and Europeans often mistakenly believed a treaty with one small Native group applied to a whole nation.

The Colonization of New England: Puritans and Calvinism

• Early Sites: New England began with temporary trading and fishing outposts along the coasts of Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts.

• The Pilgrims and Plymouth Colony ($1620$):

  • Recruited by the Virginia Company of Plymouth.

  • Separatist Puritans: A specific group seeking to separate entirely from the Church of England.

  • Beliefs: They viewed the Church of England as too ritualistic and similar to Catholicism.

  • The Mayflower Compact: A democratic document that governed Plymouth Colony until $1690$.

  • Demographics: The initial group of $101$ people included Puritans, indentured servants, craftsmen, and Captain Miles Standish.

• Calvinism: A religious movement originating with John Calvin in Geneva, Switzerland.

  • Predestination: The belief that salvation is predetermined by God.

  • Congregations: Adherents sought to live in devout communities of "saved" believers.

  • Influenced Groups: Puritans, Presbyterians (Scotland), the Dutch Reformed Church (Netherlands), and the French Huguenots.

• Massachusetts Bay Colony ($1630$):

  • Settled by "nonconformist" Puritans who wanted to reform the church from within rather than separate from it.

  • These settlers had stronger ties to English business and government.

  • Leadership: Established by John Winthrop under a grant to the Massachusetts Bay Company.