Personality Psychology Review
Learning Objectives
Understand the differences between personality, trait, and temperament.
Explain the relationship between personality and temperament
Evaluate the scientific validity of different measures of personality.
Personality
Defined as a Dynamic organization of psychophysical systems that determine the individual’s characteristic behavior and thought.
Trait
Defined as the set of attributes that collectively make up personality.
Temperament
Refers to general tendencies to feel or act in certain ways.
Temperaments incline the development of personality traits.
Three dimensions:
Activity Level: Refers to the amount of energy and movement an individual tends to exhibit.
Emotionality: Involves the intensity of emotional responses and how strongly an individual responds.
Sociability: Refers to the tendency to seek out companionship and social interactions; how willing an individual is to engage with strangers.
Measurement of Personality
Idiographic vs Nomothetic
Idiographic: Not about looking at where you stand, but rather what things about you and your personality are central to who you are.
Nomothetic: Measures your personality relative to others, standardized (a set of traits that they evaluate you on).
Example: My personality metrics: 20th percentile in extraversion, 80th percentile in openness, etc.
Behavioral Measures
Other rating: Accuracy depends on observability and evaluativeness (how socially desirable is that trait); Less susceptible to issues like self-serving bias, memory bias, etc.
Electronically activated record (EAR): Very accurate and reliable, and low in bias
Examples of Idiographic Measures: Projective Measures
Rorschach inkblot test: Shown an image of blotted colors, and asked what you see.
Your interpretation of the image says a lot about you and what you focus on.
Not considered a valued measure of your personality because there’s no standard to assess the validity of the test, and no reliability, because the answers can change from time to time because of your mood during the test.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Shown images, but more standardized than the inkblot test
Still has problems with validity and reliability, though
Examples of Nomothetic Approach: Self-Report Questionnaires and Tests
Self-report questionnaires
Many items targeting each trait
They’ll ask questions like:
A. keeps working until things are done
B. does things quickly AND carefully
C. makes plans and sticks to them
D. has trouble paying attention
E. isn’t fairly organizedOptions D and E are reverse-scored items = if you have high scores on these items, you are low on this trait
MBTI and Enneagram test
Enneagram Test: a personality system that describes nine interconnected personality types, each with a unique worldview, core motivations, fears, and desires.
MBTI tests aren’t legit because they are emotionally charged, and their questions also tend to be vague
Why Are Such Tests Not Legit?
They are Emotionally Charged
Example: “Complex and novel ideas excite you more than simple, straightforward ones.”
The wording of the question is complex and doesn’t measure one targeted trait
They are vague
Example: “You regularly make new friends”
The Enneagrams have emotionally charged types
Enneagram types (creating names based on results of test): “the healer,” “the peacemaker,” “the challenger”
MBTI types: “the architect” or “the logician”
Creates the idea of “rigid boxes” = you can only behave one way
This is wrong though, because personality is fluid and moods can change your answers
Critiques of Common Personality Assessments
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI):
MBTI theory leans on unsupported assumptions about:
The MBTI assessment’s ability to identify “true” type
The casual path from trait to behavior
The inborn nature of “type”
Predictability Concerns
MBTI lacks strong claims regarding the predictability of types.
What Makes Some Tests Legit?
Not reducing to “type” — you receive scores on each dimension instead
Specific question phrasing
Example: “I am more impatient and/or I get irritable more easily than other people I know.” (MMPI item)
Validated with other life outcomes
Validity scales
Kinds of Personalities:
Big Five Personality Traits
Big Five Traits:
O: Openness (to experience) = imaginative vs down-to-earth, likes variety vs likes routine, independent vs conforming
C: Conscientiousness = organized vs disorganized, careful vs careless, self-disciplined vs weak-willed
E: Extraversion = social vs retiring, fun-loving vs sober, affectionate vs reserved
A: Agreeableness = softhearted vs ruthless, trusting vs suspicious, helpful vs uncooperative
N: Neuroticism = worried vs calm, insecure vs secure, self-pitying vs self-satisfied
Subdivided into smaller facets
High reliability and validity
Biological Trait Theory
2 Major Dimensions:
Introversion/Extraversion
Emotional stability: how likely are you to externalize your emotions, how volatile are you
Defined in terms of an individual’s baseline levels of arousal/activity (how ready for action are you)
Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (rRST)
How bothered are you by punishment and how motivated by reward?
3 Systems:
Behavioral Approach System (BAS) — prompts a person to approach something
Likely to be associated with high extraversion
Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) — how likely are you to stop and think and weigh out the possible outcomes
Likely to be associated with high neuroticism
Flight-Fight-Freeze System (FFFS)
Whichever of the BAS or BIS that is stronger is predictive of your personality
BIS and FFS are based on anxiety vs fear — there’s a distinction between the two because they have different triggers
Review Questions
During a study, Dr. Cohen shows participants ambiguous images and asks them to tell a story about each one. What type of measure is Dr. Cohen using?
A self-report measure
A longitudinal measure
A projective measure
A behavioral measure
Ex: Dr. Cohen is using ambiguous images and asking participants to tell stories about them — this is a classic projective technique (like the Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT). It’s designed to reveal unconscious thoughts, motives, or feelings by having people “project” them onto ambiguous stimuli.
Which of the following is an example of reverse coding in a personality measure:
Keeps working until things are done
Does things quickly and carefully
Makes plans and sticks to them
Has trouble paying attention
Ex: Reverse coding is used when a statement is opposite in meaning to the trait being measured (for example, conscientiousness). While the first three options describe high conscientiousness, “has trouble paying attention” reflects low conscientiousness, so it would be reverse-coded.
Which of the following is an example of a nomothetic measure?
A self-report measure
A longitudinal measure
A projective measure
A behavioral measure
Ex: A nomothetic measure looks at traits that can be compared across many people—it focuses on general laws or patterns. Self-report measures (like personality questionnaires) are nomothetic because they assess traits in a standardized way across individuals.
What is the difference between temperaments and personality traits?
Traits are broader than temperaments.
Temperaments are broader than traits.
There is no difference; traits and temperaments are synonymous.
It depends on the age of the individual being examined
Ex: Temperaments are the biologically based emotional and behavioral tendencies seen early in life, while personality traits are the more developed, refined patterns that appear later as people grow and experience the world. So, the difference mainly depends on age and development—temperament in infants evolves into personality traits in adulthood.
Which of the following is an example of low reliability in a self-report measure?
Two independent raters assign nearly identical scores on a behavioral rating scale.
A participant’s responses are different when they complete the same questionnaire a week apart.
A measure consistently produces similar scores across administrations but does not accurately capture the intended construct.
Scores on the measure remain stable across both in-person and online administrations of the survey.
Ex: Reliability means a measure gives consistent results over time. If a participant’s answers change a lot when they take the same self-report again, that shows low test–retest reliability, meaning the measure isn’t stable or consistent.
When it comes to Big Five traits, which of the Fs in the FFFS likely predicts lower agreeableness score?
Fight
Flight
Freeze
None of the above
Ex: In the FFFS (Fight–Flight–Freeze System), the Fight response involves aggression or confrontation when faced with threats. People with stronger Fight tendencies may be more competitive, argumentative, or hostile, which is linked to lower agreeableness in the Big Five personality traits.
JoAnn is a rational person who does not daydream or seek out new experiences. Instead, she enjoys familiar tasks and having a structured daily routine. According to the five-factor theory of personality, JoAnn is very low in:
E
O
N
C
Ex: JoAnn prefers routine, structure, and familiarity and doesn’t enjoy imagination or novelty — all signs of being low in Openness to Experience, one of the Big Five personality traits.
This system ________ is more likely to be associated with high extraversion, while this system _______ is more likely to be associated with high neuroticism.
BAS; BIS
FFFS; BAS
BIS; BAS
BIS; FFFS
Ex: The Behavioral Activation System (BAS) is linked to reward-seeking, motivation, and positive emotions, which are traits of high extraversion.
The Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) is linked to anxiety, worry, and sensitivity to punishment, which align with high neuroticism.
In biological trait theory, the dimension __________ is most similar to the five-factor theory trait __________.
Emotional stability; neuroticism
Conscientiousness; openness
Psychoticism; agreeableness
Openness to experience; extraversion
Ex: In Eysenck’s biological trait theory, emotional stability is one of the main dimensions and represents the opposite end of neuroticism in the Five-Factor Theory. High neuroticism means low emotional stability, and vice versa.
James is very low in the biological trait theory’s psychoticism dimension. Thus, you would expect him to be:
Somewhat cynical
Moderately impulsive
Fairly empathic
Very outgoing
Ex: In Eysenck’s biological trait theory, low psychoticism is linked to being kind, empathetic, cooperative, and caring, while high psychoticism is associated with aggressiveness, coldness, and lack of empathy.
According to the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality, extraverts are likely to __________ new situations and people, while introverts are likely to __________ new situations and people.
Approach; approach
Approach; avoid
Avoid; avoid
Avoid; approach
Ex: According to the Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST), extraverts have a more active Behavioral Activation System (BAS), making them more likely to approach new people and situations. Introverts, with a less active BAS and/or more sensitive BIS, are more likely to avoid novel situations.
One of your roommates is an extravert, and the other is an introvert. When you come home, you slam the door, surprising them both. According to biological trait theory, who would show more physiological arousal in response to this event?
The extravert
The introvert
They would both show the same level of arousal.
This theory does not allow one to predict the outcome.
Ex: In Eysenck’s biological trait theory, introverts have a naturally higher baseline level of cortical arousal, so they respond with more physiological arousal to sudden or stimulating events. Extraverts have lower baseline arousal, making them less reactive in such situations.
Learning Objectives
Evaluate the role of nature and nurture on personality.
Describe methodologies used for studying the genetic and environmental influences on personality.
Evaluate how temperament influences personality.
Discuss the neurobiology of certain temperaments.
Research Methods for Genetic Influence
Twin Studies - Nature
Purpose: Assess genetic contributions to personality traits.
Results: Genes account for approximately 40-60% of the variability in personality traits; Identical twins are more similar in all traits for OCEAN than fraternal twins.
Monozygotic vs. Dizygotic Twins:
Identical (Monozygotic) Twins: Share 100% of their genes.
Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins: Share about 50% of their genetic makeup, akin to non-twin siblings, which aids in studying genetic vs environmental influence in personalities.
O.C.E.A.N model: Traits analyze the correlation of scores (e.g., agreeableness, neuroticism, etc.) between identical versus fraternal twins, yielding statistical correlations.
Adoption Studies - Nurture
Significance: Investigates the environmental effects on personality development; children are not very similar to their adoptive parents due to a lack of genetics.
Implication: Findings indicate a complex interaction between genetics and environment rather than a direct genetic blueprint for personality.
Role of Peers: Peers significantly influence an individual's personality development postnatally.
Genes and Personality
Gene Role: Individual genes do not directly correspond to specific personality traits.
Complex Influence: Multiple genes contribute to overarching predispositions leading to personality traits.
Environment's Impact: The environment plays a crucial role in shaping and evolving these predispositions into discernible personality traits.
Temperament
Temperamental Traits:
Activity Level: The degree of movement and energy.
Emotionality: The intensity of emotional reactions.
Sociability: The tendency to seek social interactions.
Influence on Life Decisions: High-sociability individuals are inclined to relocate to urban settings, while active individuals generally exhibit mobility regardless of location.
Parental Influence: A child's emotionality can affect parental behaviors and decisions.
Temperament Across the Lifespan
Development Stages: Temperament characteristics are apparent in infancy and show stability throughout life.
Inhibition in Infants: About 15-20% of infants exhibit inhibited temperament by reacting negatively to novelty (e.g., startling easily and getting distressed).
Predictive Patterns: Inhibition during infancy can predict social anxiety later in childhood and adolescent years.
Potential Mental Health Issues: An inhibited child is likely to experience various mental health challenges and may lack adequate support systems.
Temperament and Biology
Neuroscience: The amygdala shows increased activation in inhibited children before the age of 2.
Outcome Variabilities: While up to 25% of inhibited children do overcome social anxiety through nurturing environments, overprotection can hinder development.
Some factors that might lead to this: the parents could choose to put the child in social situations.
Temperament and Life Outcomes
Antisocial Behaviors and Alcohol Problems: Research links temperament in early childhood to adult behavioral issues, including predisposition to antisocial personality disorder and substance abuse. Data shows the percentage of problems associated with different temperament types at the age of three.
Gene and Temperament ⇌ Environment Interactions on Personality
Reciprocal Influences: The interaction between genes and environment forms the basis for personality traits, indicating a dynamic relationship rather than a static development process.
Temperament guides behavior and environment.
Resultant environment can further guide temperament.
Reciprocal Determinism:
Reciprocal interaction between three factors
Ex: party in a new town
Environment = loud, crowded
Characteristics = You might want to socialize a lot
Behavior = You might make friends
You can curate a new personality, becoming more social than you were before
It's not about the factors alone, but about the effect they can have when combined
Review Questions
Two infants who are not biologically related are adopted by the same family. Research suggests that their personality characteristics will be most similar to those of ____________________.
Each other
Their biological parents
Other adopted children
Their adoptive parents
Ex: Research on adoption studies shows that personality traits are strongly influenced by genetics. Even when raised in the same family, adopted children tend to resemble their biological parents more than their adoptive parents or siblings in traits like temperament, extraversion, and neuroticism.
Anne and Diane are fraternal (dizygotic) twins. As they have gotten older, Anne has become more neurotic than Diane, and Diane has become more conscientious than Anne. Which of the following MOST LIKELY contributed to this divergence in personality between the sisters?
Exposure to different stress hormones in the womb
Their friendships with different peers at school
The parenting style used at home
This wouldn’t occur - twin personalities have near-perfect correlation.
Ex: While twins share genetics and often the same home environment, nonshared environmental influences—like friendships, unique experiences, or different social circles—can lead to differences in personality as they age. This explains why Anne became more neurotic and Diane more conscientious.
At daycare, Joey prefers to play by himself, rather than with other kids, and is easily startled if a teacher comes up and taps him on the shoulder. Based on this description, Joey is low in ______ and high in ______.
Sociability; activity
Activity; sociability
Sociability; emotionality
Activity; emotionality
Ex: Joey prefers to play alone (low sociability) and is easily startled (high emotionality). In temperament research, sociability refers to enjoyment of social interaction, while emotionality refers to the intensity of emotional reactions.
Which of the following children most likely has a highly emotional temperament?.
Ellie, who is happiest when she is around lots of other children her age and gets lonely when she is by herself for too long
Sahar, who has been too frightened to sleep without a night-light ever since her brother told her a scary ghost story
Danielle, who spends the first hour after getting home from school every day racing around the house
Amanda, who throws tantrums if she’s made to play with other kids
Ex: A highly emotional temperament is characterized by strong and reactive emotional responses. Amanda's behavior of throwing tantrums, which are outbursts of anger and frustration, is a clear indicator of a highly emotional temperament.
Learning Objectives
Discuss factors that can impact behaviors in addition to personality
• Distinguish between situationism and interactionism.
• Theorize which real-life events are strong versus weak situations.
• Describe how development and life events alter personality traits.
External Factors Influencing Behavior
Expectancy-Value Theory: Considers an individual’s expectations of rewards and the value placed on those rewards in influencing behaviors.
Expectancy: Your anticipation of receiving a reward from a behavior.
Value: Your personal assessment of how badly you want the reward.
Locus of Control: Refers to the degree to which individuals believe they have control over their lives.
Internal locus of control: Belief that one has control over their life events.
External locus of control: Belief that external factors dictate outcomes.
Situationism vs Interactionism
Situationism:
Concept: Behaviors are significantly affected by situational contexts rather than innate personality traits.
Self-Monitoring: The individual's ability to regulate their behavior in different contexts plays a critical role.
Strong vs Weak Situations
Strong Situations: Environments with strict behavior expectations that minimize individual personality expressions.
Examples may include job interviews or formal events, where behavior is highly regulated.
Weak Situations: More relaxed and flexible environments that allow personality and individual differences to flourish, such as casual gatherings.
Interactionism
Integration of Factors: Behaviors are shaped by a combination of inherent traits and environmental contexts.
Example: An extroverted person might act sociably at a party, but their level of engagement may vary compared to their introverted peer, demonstrating situational impact on behavior.
Personality and the Lifespan
Rank-Order Stability and Mean Level Changes
Rank-Order Stability: relative standing of traits remains fairly stable.
Mean Level Changes: Fluctuations in trait levels may occur due to age-related or life event-related changes.
Personality Development and Age
General Trends: Consistent across cultures!
Agreeableness and conscientiousness go up with age
Socialbility, openness, and neuroticism go down with age
Personality and Life Events
Significant life changes often occur during young adulthood, which influence personality.
Examples include forming long-term relationships, career development, family establishment, and increased travel.
Review Questions
When Madeline is at a party, she is excited, loud, and sociable. However, when she attends a wedding ceremony, she remains quiet and calm. What would this be an example of?
Interactionism
Temperament
Situationism
Environmentalism
Ex: Situationism is a theory that suggests a person's behavior is influenced more by their immediate environment or situation rather than by their personality traits.
Madeline and Alexa are fraternal twins. Madeline is generally shy and reserved, while Alexa is a total extrovert. At their 10th birthday party, both of them were excited and socially exuberant, but Alexa was clearly more so than Madeline. What is this an example of?
Interactionism
Temperament
Situationism
Environmentalism
Ex: Both twins are influenced by the same situation (their birthday party), which makes them excited and socially active. However, their individual differences—Madeline being shy and Alexa being an extrovert—still affect how exuberantthey are. This combination of personality traits and situational factors is a classic example of interactionism.
Which of the following is the best example of a “weak situation” according to personality psychologists?
A TSA airport screening
A beach day with friends
A job interview
A wedding ceremony
Ex: A weak situation is one that provides few social constraints, allowing personality traits to influence behavior freely. A beach day with friends is unstructured and relaxed, so people can act according to their natural tendencies.
Across cultures, people become _______ neurotic and _______ agreeable as they age.
More; less
More; more
Less; less
Less; more
Ex: Research on personality development across cultures shows that, as people age, they tend to become less neurotic(calmer, less anxious) and more agreeable (more cooperative and compassionate). This reflects the general trend of emotional maturation over the lifespan.
How does a person’s temperament as an infant relate to their personality in adulthood?
Infant temperament correlates with overall adult personality but does not predict specific adult behavior patterns.
Temperament is unstable; there is no consistent relationship between the infant's temperament and adult personality
Infant temperament correlates with both the general structure of adult personality and various behaviors observed in adulthood
Infant temperament predicts negative but not positive behaviors in adulthood
Ex: Research shows that temperament in infancy—such as activity level, emotionality, and sociability—relates to adult personality traits (e.g., Big Five traits) and can predict behaviors like social interactions, emotional regulation, and coping styles. While personality can be shaped by environment, early temperament provides a meaningful foundation.