Comprehensive Study Guide on American Imperialism and Expansionism (1867-1900)

Course Logistics and Unit Administration

• The course calendar provides exact details on assignment locations, due dates, and availability windows.

• Review questions covering textbook chapters $21$ through $23$ must be thoroughly studied for the upcoming unit exam, as several exam questions are drawn directly from the textbook.

• The course contains four total textbook quizzes, with exactly one quiz assigned for each of the four course units.

• Preparation for the unit exam requires studying four distinct components:

  • Textbook review questions
  • PowerPoint presentation content
  • Textbook quizzes
  • Unit content assignments

• Missing the Unit $1$ exam results in a score of zero ($0$), requiring students to complete a make-up examination.

Questions & Discussion

• Question: Where do the questions for the upcoming exam come from?

• Response: The exam format is identical to Unit $1$. Questions are taken directly from the textbook and the unit content.

Introduction to Yankee Imperialism

• Following the transition from the Progressive Era and internal government affairs, United States foreign policy shifted toward establishing an overseas empire.

• Topics covered in this unit include:

  • Yankee imperialism
  • Captain/Admiral Albert t Mahon
  • Jingoism
  • The Spanish-American War
  • The Election of $1900$
  • The Open Door policy toward China

• The American empire established in the late $19\text{th}$ century differed fundamentally from European empires:

  • European empires sought global territory across multiple continents.
  • The United States empire was localized in the Pacific Ocean, stretching from South America and the Caribbean across the Pacific Ocean all the way to China.

• Political, military, and economic expansion during the late $19\text{th}$ century, particularly after the conclusion of the Spanish-American War, transformed the United States into a worldwide influence.

Territorial Acquisition and the Alaska Purchase

• Prior to the late $19\text{th}$ century, the United States maintained an isolationist foreign policy and was not part of the broader world community.

• American expansionism since the $18\text{th}$ century focused strictly on land adjacent to existing borders, reaching the contiguous $48$ states by the end of the Civil War.

• William Henry Seward, who served as Secretary of State during the presidency of Abraham Lincoln, was an early proponent of overseas expansionism.

• In $1867$, the United States purchased Alaska from Russia for a total price of $7,200,000\text{ dollars}$ ($7,200,000$):

  • The transaction is ranked as one of the greatest real estate purchases in history, second only to the Louisiana Purchase.
  • At the time, Seward was sharply ridiculed, and critics referred to the purchase as "Seward's father," believing the land was completely devoid of value.
  • Subsequent mineral discoveries proved critics wrong, revealing vast mineral wealth in Alaska.

• Minor, unsuccessful attempts at territorial expansion took place during the administration of President U.S. Grant.

The Samoan Crisis and Samoan Protectorate

• Samoa is located in the South and Southwestern regions of the Pacific Ocean.

• Three foreign powers—the United States, Great Britain, and Germany—attempted to gain control over Samoa for strategic purposes:

  • Samoa provided a critical refueling station for naval vessels.
  • It served as a commercial center to open direct trade routes to the Far East.

• Tensions escalated to the brink of military conflict among the three nations.

• In $1889$, during the Benjamin Harrison administration, the three nations signed a compromise agreement establishing joint control over Samoa as a protectorate.

• Protectorate Definition: A political arrangement in which a superior power provides protection and exercises partial authority over an inferior power (where the U.S., Great Britain, and Germany acted as superior powers over the Samoan population).

• The acquisition of Samoa marked the first time the United States reached far beyond its contiguous borders to control overseas territory.

The New Manifest Destiny and Social Darwinism

• The concept of Manifest Destiny originally served in the $1840\text{s}$ as the intellectual justification for continental expansion and the Mexican War.

• In the $1880\text{s}$ and $1890\text{s}$, a reinvigorated, robust form known as the "New Manifest Destiny" emerged to justify claiming territories far separated from the American mainland.

• The New Manifest Destiny integrated concepts of natural selection and "survival of the fittest" derived directly from Social Darwinism.

• Imperialist logic dictated that certain groups and nations were inherently superior, destined to survive, prosper, conquer, and rule over inferior nations and peoples.

Alfred Thayer Mahan and the Four-Step Plan for Sea Power

• Albert t Mahon (Captain, later Admiral, in the United States Navy) was a key intellectual figure driving American imperial expansion.

• In $1890$, Mahon published The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, covering the historical era from $1660$ (the Restoration of Charles II in England) to $1763$ / $1783$ (the end of the American Revolution and drafting of the Constitution).

• Mahon outlined a four-step strategic plan for the United States to achieve world power status:

  • Step 1: Build a Modern Naval Fleet: Rebuild the U.S. Navy, which had fallen into severe disrepair following the Civil War due to the high financial costs of naval upkeep.
  • Step 2: Establish Caribbean Refueling Stations: Acquire coaling stations in the Caribbean to allow coal-powered naval vessels to replenish fuel and operate freely.
  • Step 3: Acquire Hawaii: Secure the Hawaiian Islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean to function as a naval repair/coaling station and a global commercial trade hub halfway to Asian markets like China and Japan.
  • Step 4: Construct an Isthmian Canal: Build a canal across the Isthmus of Central America to allow naval and merchant ships to transit between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans without circumnavigating South America.

Jingoism and American Naval Expansion

• Jingoism Definition: An aggressive, highly belligerent foreign policy posture adopted by the United States toward other nations.

• The term "jingoism" originated from a song by Greg Griffith containing the phrase "By Jingo."

• Congressional legislation rapidly expanded the United States Navy to support an imperialist foreign policy:

  • In $1883$, Congress voted to construct $3$ new cruisers.
  • In $1886$, Congress approved the construction of $2$ battleships.
  • In $1990$, Congress authorized $3$ additional battleships.

Diplomatic Escalation: Chile, Venezuela, and Hawaii

• Chilean Incident ($1891$):

  • Chilean citizens killed $2$ American sailors during an altercation in Chile.
  • The American public and political figures demanded a formal declaration of war against Chile.
  • Conflict was averted when Chile agreed to pay an indemnity and issue an official apology.

• Venezuela Boundary Dispute:

  • A territorial dispute arose between Venezuela and British Guiana (located alongside French Guiana—site of a notorious French prison—and Dutch Guiana).
  • Secretary of State Richard Allney invoked the Monroe Doctrine, declaring that the United States was practically sovereign on the continent and its word was law on matters within the hemisphere.
  • When the British refused to comply initially, President Robert Cleveland convinced Congress to create an independent boundary commission.
  • Great Britain eventually agreed to abide by the boundary commission's ruling, resolving the diplomatic crisis peacefully.

• Hawaiian Annexation Movement:

  • American interest in Hawaii stemmed from four factors: missionary work, strategic military position, the natural harbor at Port Coral Harbor (for coaling and repairs), and the highly profitable sugarcane industry.
  • In $1875$, a treaty between the Kingdom of Hawaii and the United States granted duty-free access for Hawaiian sugar, triggering a massive economic sugar boom.
  • In $1890$, the McKinley Tariff eliminated the duty-free privilege, causing the Hawaiian sugar market to collapse and sparking widespread economic suffering.
  • American business interests, assisted by U.S. Ambassador John Stevens and a detachment of U.S. Marines, overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy and established a "businessman's government."
  • President Robert Cleveland opposed annexation, arguing native Hawaiians should govern themselves, and dispatched an investigative commissioner who concluded the overthrow was an unauthorized revolution against native wishes.
  • The annexation stalled in political gridlock until the election of President William McKinley in $1896$. Following the Spanish-American War in $1898$, Congress officially annexed Hawaii despite native Hawaiian opposition.

The Spanish-American War and Cuban Revolution

• Hostilities between Spain and the United States erupted in $1898$ due to the ongoing Cuban revolution against Spanish rule (which had been established in the $1490\text{s}$ under Christopher Columbus).

• The passage of the Wilson Farming tariff revoked Cuba's duty-free sugar privilege, causing severe economic distress and triggering civil insurrection on the island.

• Spanish Governor General Boliano Weiler (referred to by Cubans as "Butcher Weiler") attempted to suppress the rebellion using brutal concentration camps, where thousands of Cubans died from starvation and disease.

• "Yellow journalists" such as William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Peterson published detailed reports on Spanish atrocities, generating public demand in the United States for intervention on both humanitarian and economic grounds.

• The election of President William McKinley in $1896$ accelerated the transformation of United States foreign policy toward active overseas imperialist expansion.

Final Course Announcements

• Lecture content concluded on slide number $24$.

• The FCA writing assignment must be submitted before the expiration of the official grace period; no submissions will be accepted after the grace period ends.

• Students are cautioned to submit assignments well in advance of the deadline to prevent technical issues related to Wi-Fi failures.