GENBIO (copy)

Steps in Scientific Method

1. problem statement

2. Literature review

3. hypothesis formulation

4. experimentation

5. data collection & analysis

6. conclusion

2 types of hypothesis

1. Ho - null hypothesis

2. Ha- alternative hypothesis

2 Types of conclusion

1. Accept

2. Reject

Anti- bacterial

Reject - Ho Accept - Ha

W/o Antibacterial

Reject - Ha Accept - Ho

ml = microliter

1ml = 1000pql

OBJECTIVE LENS

• Scanner (Red) = 4x

• Low Power Objective | LPO (Yellow) = 10x

• High Power Objective | HPO (Blue) = 40x

• Oil Immersion Objective | OIO (White) = 100x

Total Magnification:

• 4x * 10x = 40x

Cells

Cell Theory

3 Postulates

1. All living things are composed of one / more cells

2. The cell is the basic unit of life

3. All cells arise from pre- existing cells.

Cell Structure And Functions

1. Cell membrane

• Outer covering

• Supports & Protects

• Also Calle as plasma membrane

• made with phospholipids

2. Cytoplasm

• Thick, Clear liquid Jelly substance where organelles are suspended in.

• Fluid (Cytosol)

3. Nucleus

• Center of control in the cell, contains the DNA

• Send signals to the cells to grow, mature, & die

• Inside DNA, Creates Ribosomes’

4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• Rough ER - Has attached ribosomes

• Smooth ER - No Ribosomes

• Transports substances, has a role in metabolism.

• Molecules

5. Golgi Apparatus/ Complex/ Body

• Cells “Post Office”

• Packages molecules processed by ER

• Protein

6. Mitochondria | Singular = Mitochondrion

• Powerhouse of the Cell

• Makes ATP, Energy from food → Oxygen + Glucose

• Made through Cellular Respiration

• ATP = Adenosine Triphosphate

7. Lysosomes & Peroxisomes

• Recycling Center = Recycle worn - out cell

• Digest old foreign cells / Bacteria in the cell

• Animal Cells

• Rid of toxic Substance

8. Ribosomes

• Protein Synthesizers ( Creates Proteins using cell genetic material)

• Can be found floating around cytoplasm or stick - around ER

9. Cell Wall

• Only in Plant Cell

• Outermost layer of plant cell + Protects and maintaining plant formation

10. Chloroplast

• Only in plant cell : Organelles for photosynthesis

• Contains the chlorophyll

  Yellow

  Green

  Red

11. Vacuoles

• Stores food, water & other wastes in the cell.

TYPES OF CELLS

Plastids

• Color pigments in the cells

Prokaryote

• The organism Itself

• Works for all types of cell

Prokaryotic

• The cell

• Works for all types of cell

Types of Cells

1. Epithelial Cells

   • Organ Lining

2. Connective tissue cells

   • Secretes Rigid extracellular matrix

3. Muscle cells

   • Has muscle fibers allowing in/voluntary movement

     • Collagen &

4. Nerve Cells

   • Sends electric signals

Modifications

1. Apical

   • Cilia - Hair like projections moving bacteria

   • Flagella/ Flagellum (Singular) - Whiplike tail used for locomotion

     • Formed form microtubules

   • Villi - Fingerlike projections, epithelial layer in organs

   • Microvilli - present in intestines + absorbs nutrients

     • smaller projections that arise from cell’s surface

   • Pseudopods - irregular lobes formed by amoebas

     • “walks” to catch its prey

   • ECM | Extracellular Matrix - Glycoprotein is the main ingredient in animal cells

2. Basal

   • Desmosomes | Hemidesmosomes

     • Primary made of keratin, integrin, cadherin

3. Lateral

   • Tight Junctions

     • Acts a barriers, Regulating the movement of water & solutes

   • Gap Junctions

     • Allows direct exchange of chemicals between cytoplasm of 2 cells

   • Adhering Junctions

     • Fastens cells to each other

Cell Cycle

1. Interphase

   • Longest phase , Preparation stage

     G0 - Resting state ; No act

     G1 - Grows in size, nutrients, development

     S - Synthesis phase, copying DNA (Genetic Material)

     G2 - Double checking cell size, DNA replication

     • If error occurs → Apoptosis (Cell death)

2. Mitotic phase

   • P -Prophase

   

   • Metaphase

   

   • Anaphase

   

   • Telophase

   

   → Cleavage

• 23 - Homolysis Chromosomes

• 2n = 46 → Diploid

• n = 23 - Haploid

• Mitosis - 2 Identical daughter cell

• ONLY Somatic cells, Body cells

  Animal → A.C - Cleavage furrow

  Plant → P.C - Cell plate

  

3. Cytokinesis

   • Division of Cytoplasm

     

• Meiosis

  • 4 Haploid cells

    • Reduction Division

    • Gametes (Sex Cells)

  

• SC.23

  • Spermatogenesis

  • Oogenesis - Haploids

• 47- 3 (start of cell)

  • With disorder

• Down Syndrome

  • Results from a 3rd chromosome on the 21st pair

  • when there’s too little chromosomes

TRANSPORT MECHANISM

Structure of Cell Membrane / Plasma

• Phospholipids

  • Bilayered

  • Hydrophilic

  • 

• Hydrophilic

  • Water Loving

• Hydrophobic

  • Water fearing

SJ Singer & Garth L. Nicolson 1972 FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

Cell Membrane

• Thin layer Surrounding Cytoplasm of pro & eukaryotic cells

• Semi selective permeable, allows only specific things in.

• Attachment site for cytoskeletal shaping & Supporting

Cytoskeletal | Organelle

• Maintains Shape / structure

  • Microfilaments

  • Microtubules

  • Intermediate Filaments

Aquaporin

• Water moves rapidly into & out of cells

• Water channels in bacteria

  • Since tails are hydrophobic

  Conformational Change

  • Protein changes shape

Membrane proteins

• Embedded / attached in cell membrane

  a. Receptor - Binds to chemical messengers fitting into it.

  b. Enzyme - Breaks down chem messengers

  c. Ion channel - Constantly open for exist

  d. Gated Ion Channel - Open/ Closes to allow ions at specific times

  e. Cell identity marker -Glycoprotein acting, Distinguishing the body’s own cell from foreign cells.

  f. Cell adhesion molecule | CAM - Binds one another (Physically)

Types of Membrane proteins

1. Integral Protein - Embedded fully/ partially

2. Peripheral Protein - Loosely attached to the cell’s membrane

Transport Mechanism

• Various ways molecules move around membranes for homeostasis function

• To maintain homeostasis, Membranes need to oversee what goes in and out of the cell

→ Homeostasis

• Process of keeping stable internal / external environment

→ Diffusion

• Higher to Lower Concentration

  • Universe tends toward disorder

  • Aquaporin classifies under facilitated diffusion

Types of cellular transport

1. Passive

   • Movement w/out energy

2. Active

   • Movement w/ energy & Proteins

   Facilitated Diffusion

   • w/ assistance (Protein)

   Simple Diffusion

   • Direct transport | Uniport = 1 way

   Osmosis

   • Diffusion of water

Concentration of water

• Determines osmosis direction

1. Hypertonic

   • More solute, Less water

   • Ex: Salt water

2. Hypotonic

   • Less solute, more water

   • Ex: Melted ice in ice tea

3. Isotonic

   • Equal solute. Equal water

   • Ex: Normal water

Managing water balance

• Where cell survival depends

Active transport | Details

• energy is harvested by hydrolysis → Water breakdown

• ATP - ADP (bisphosphate)

• Low to high concentration

• Ex: Sodium potassium pump

  Symport

  • Same direction

  Antiport

  • Opposite direction

Primary Active Transport

• Uses the energy found in ATP, Photons & Electrochemical gradients

  Photo energy

  • Basic unit of light

Secondary - Active Transport

• Maybe symport or antiport

Bulk Transport

1. Phagocytosis - Cell eating

2. Pinocytosis - Cell drinking | Extracellular Fluid → Nutrients

3. Receptor - Mediated Endocytosis

   • Receptor used to capture specific target molecules

Exocytosis

• disposes leftovers “Kiss n Run” touches membrane & diffuses out.