Native Peoples in the 19th Century

Ideals of the Revolution and Impact on Native Peoples

  • "All men are created equal": Revolutionary ideals were selectively applied, impacting Native Americans significantly.

  • Post-Revolution Threats: Native peoples faced increased threats to their autonomy with the establishment of the U.S.

Changing Dynamics of Native American Autonomy

  • Colonial Era: Native tribes leveraged European powers against each other for autonomy.

  • Post-French and Indian War: Removal of French influence and weakening of British presence altered power balance.

  • U.S. Expansion: As U.S. power grew and European influence waned, tribes sought new strategies to resist expansion.

Formation of Alliance and Early Resistance Movements

  • Ohio Country: Initial focus of Native resistance, tribes sought alliances against American encroachment.

  • Articles of Confederation: Limited U.S. military capabilities initially favored Native strategies, leading to alliances.

  • Constitution and Army Formation: US Constitution enabled stronger government and military, undermining Native alliances.

Key Battles and Treaties

  • St. Clair’s Defeat: Initial defeat of U.S. forces against Native alliances, highlighting tribal unity.

  • Battle of Falling Timbers (1794): General Wayne defeats tribes; Treaty of Greenville followed, ceding lands to U.S.

  • British Influence: Continued British presence provided Native tribes with some support against U.S.

Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa

  • Tenskwatawa's Religious Vision (1805): Advocate for cultural purification among tribes, rejecting alcohol and European assimilation.

  • Prophetstown: A coalition center established by Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, alarming U.S. authorities.

  • Battle of Tippecanoe: Harrison's forces defeat Native tribes, marking the end of the pan-Indian alliance movement.

The War of 1812 and Native Alliances

  • Native Support for British: Tribes allied with British, seeking to halt American expansion; successful resistance was limited.

  • Tecumseh's Death at the Battle of the Thames (1813): Decisive loss for Native alliances, diminishing their collective power.

Resistance in the American South

  • Creek Civil War (1813): Factional violence within tribes over responses to American pressures led to conflict.

  • Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814): General Jackson defeats Red Stick faction of Creek, resulting in severe land loss for tribes.

Acquisition and Control of Florida

  • Florida Conflicts: Following the War of 1812, tensions between U.S. and Seminole tribes increased, leading to conflicts.

  • Adams-Onis Treaty (1819): Transfer of Florida to the U.S., further diminishing Native autonomy.

Cherokee Adaptation and Legal Battles

  • Cherokee Assimilation: Adoption of agriculture and American governance practices as methods for survival.

  • Supreme Court Cases:

    • Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831): Denied legal standing for tribes in court.

    • Worcester v. Georgia (1832): Asserted U.S. jurisdiction over tribes, limiting state authority.

Indian Removal Policies

  • Indian Removal Act (1830): Empowered forced relocation of tribes from East to territories west of the Mississippi.

  • Trail of Tears: Forced march of Cherokee and other tribes leading to immense suffering and loss of life.

Continuing Resistance and Conflicts

  • Seminole Wars: Longest-lasting conflict between U.S. and Native tribes, resulting in forced removals.

  • Homestead Act (1862) and Pacific Railroad Act (1863): Encouraged further settlement, exacerbating Native displacement.

Decline of Military Resistance

  • Battle of Little Big Horn (1876): Major Native victory against American forces; led to intensified military campaigns.

  • Reservation System: Established after military pressure, often resulting in poor living conditions for tribes.

Assimilation Policies and Cultural Suppression

  • Dawes Severalty Act (1887): Aimed to dismantle tribal identities by allotting land to individuals, promoting agriculture.

  • Cultural Resistance: Native tribes resisted assimilation; revival of traditional practices and spiritual movements emerged.

  • Ghost Dance Movement: A spiritual response to oppression, aiming for a return to traditional ways.

Wounded Knee Massacre (1890)

  • Tragic Event: U.S. military massacre of Lakota at Wounded Knee, signifying the end of significant Native resistance.

  • Public Perception: Government attempted to frame the massacre as a victory, but it remains a symbol of colonial violence against Native Americans.

During the 19th century, American society's approach to Native societies evolved significantly, marked by several key changes:

  1. Initial Resistance and Treaty Making

    • Native tribes initially resisted American expansion, seeking alliances to combat U.S. encroachment.

    • Treaties were frequently negotiated, often leading to forced removals and cessions of lands.

  2. Removal Policies

    • The Indian Removal Act of 1830 epitomized this shift, enabling the forced relocation of tribes from their ancestral lands to territories west of the Mississippi.

    • The Trail of Tears became a horrific example of these policies, resulting in immense suffering and death among displaced tribes.

  3. Legal Battles and Assimilation Efforts

    • The Supreme Court cases, such as Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) and Worcester v. Georgia (1832), highlighted the attempts by Native tribes to seek legal recognition and protection.

    • Following these rulings, the approach shifted towards assimilation, with tribes encouraged to adopt agriculture and American governance practices.

  4. Military Conflicts and Campaigns

    • The 19th century also saw a rise in military conflicts, including the Seminole Wars and battles such as Little Big Horn, which exemplified the violent resistance against U.S. policies.

    • Following major defeats, Native societies faced increased military pressure and establishment of the reservation system.

  5. Cultural Suppression and Assimilation Policies

    • Legislation like the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 sought to dismantle tribal identities by allotting land to individuals, further promoting assimilation into American culture.

    • Despite these pressures, cultural resistance arose with movements such as the Ghost Dance, reflecting the continued fight for Native identity.

  6. Final Suppression and Massacres

    • Events like the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890 marked the tragic culmination of attempts to suppress Native societies, signifying both military defeat and a profound loss of life and culture.