The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution, 1865-1896

Chapter 26: The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution, 1865-1896

I. The Clash of Cultures on the Plains

• Migration and Conflict:

  • The Comanches drove the Apaches off the central plains into the upper Rio Grande valley during the 18th century.

  • The Cheyenne, harried by the Mandans and Chippewas, had abandoned their villages along the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers a century before the Civil War.

  • The Sioux, displaced from the Great Lakes woodlands in the 18th century, emerged onto the plains to prey upon Crows, Kiowas, and Pawnees.

• Impact of White Settlement:

  • The influx of white soldiers and settlers accelerated the cycle of fierce enmities among Native American tribes.

  • This ultimately undermined the foundations of Native American culture.

  • The introduction of diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and smallpox led to devastating consequences for the native peoples of the plains.

  • Pressure on the bison population increased due to hunting and livestock grazing on prairie grasses.

• Federal Government's Role:

  • To pacify Plains Indians, federal government signed treaties with “chiefs” of various tribes at Fort Laramie (1851) and at Fort Atkinson (1853).

  • These treaties marked the beginnings of the reservation system in the West, establishing boundaries for each tribe's territory and attempting to separate Indians into colonies.

  • Misunderstandings:

  • White treatymakers often misunderstood both Indian governance structures and tribal societies.

  • The concept of “tribes” and “chiefs” was often a fiction of white imagination; many Native Americans recognized only the authority of immediate families or band elders.

  • The nomadic culture of Plains Indians was utterly alien to the idea of living in a confined territory.

• 1860s Intensification and Restrictions:

  • The federal government intensified its policy, herding Indians into smaller confines, primarily into the “Great Sioux Reservation” in Dakota Territory and Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma).

  • Indians surrendered ancestral lands under promises from Washington that they would be left alone and provided with food, clothing, and supplies.

  • Federal Indian agents were often corrupt.

  • For over a decade following the Civil War, fierce warfare between Native Americans and the U.S. Army erupted in various parts of the West, with many Army troops being immigrants, including African Americans known as “Buffalo Soldiers.”

II. Receding Native Population

• Savage Clashes in Indian Wars:

  • The Indian wars were often marked by extreme violence.

  • Notable incidents include the Sand Creek Massacre in Colorado (1864), where Colonel J.M. Chivington's militia massacred 400 peaceful Indians, including women and children.

  • The cruel nature of these events led to reciprocal violence, such as the Fetterman massacre in 1866, where 81 white soldiers were slaughtered by Sioux warriors.

• Treaties and Warfare:

  • Fetterman's annihilation led to one of the few short-lived Indian triumphs in the plains wars, specifically during the Battle of Little Bighorn.

  • The Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) involved the government abandoning the Bozeman Trail and guaranteeing the “Great Sioux Reservation” to the Sioux tribes, amidst rising tensions.

  • In 1874, warfare reignited when General Custer's expedition revealed gold in the Black Hills, prompting a horde of gold-seekers to invade Sioux lands.

  • Inspired by Sitting Bull, the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho Indians took to the warpath, confronting Custer and leading to his defeat.

• Nez Perce War:

  • Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce led a group in 1877 on a 1,700-mile trek across the Continental Divide towards Canada, surrendering after facing relentless pursuit by U.S. troops.

  • The Nez Perce were exiled to a dusty reservation in Kansas, where 40% died from disease.

  • The Apache tribes, particularly under Geronimo, proved difficult to subdue.

• Destruction of Plains Indian Culture:

  • The relentless violence and government policies shattered the spirit of Native Americans.

  • The virtual extermination of buffalo made it impossible for the Plains Indians to maintain their nomadic way of life.

III. Bellowing Herds of Bison

• Impact of Buffalo on Native American Life:

  • The buffalo, described as “hunchback cows,” were central to Native American life, providing food, clothing, tools, and fuel.

  • When the Civil War ended, approximately 15 million buffalo still roamed the western plains.

• Railroad Influence:

  • Railroads had profound impacts on buffalo populations, often requiring prolonged waits for herds to cross tracks.

  • Buffalo meat was a vital food source for railroad workers.

  • William “Buffalo Bill” Cody killed over 4,000 buffalo in just 18 months for the Kansas Pacific Railroad.

  • The railroad ushered in a massacre of buffalo, fueled by hunting for sport and profit.

  • By 1885, fewer than a thousand buffalo remained, teetering on the brink of extinction.

IV. The End of the Trail

• Public Consciousness:

  • By the 1880s, the national conscience was stirred regarding the plight of Native Americans.

  • Helen Hunt Jackson’s publications, A Century of Dishonor (1881) and Ramona (1884), highlighted injustices against Native Americans, garnering sympathy.

• Diverse Views:

  • Humanitarians advocated for kind treatment of Indians, while hard-liners supported a policy of forced containment and brutality.

  • Christian reformers sometimes withheld food to compel assimilation into white culture.

• Key Legislative Actions:

  • The Dawes Severalty Act (1887) was a misguided effort aimed at reforming Indian policies.

  • It dissolved many tribes as legal entities and eliminated tribal land ownership.

  • Instead, land was allotted to individual family heads, providing 160 acres.

  • Fulfillment of “good white settler” behavior was required for citizenship after 25 years.

  • Reservation lands not allotted to Indians were sold to railroads and settlers, with proceeds used by the federal government to “civilize” Native Americans.

• Contradictions in Policy:

  • The Dawes Act directly challenged tribal organization and tried to promote individualism, disregarding community land ties essential to Indian culture.

  • By 1900, Indians had lost 50% of the 156 million acres they held at the act's initiation.

  • The forced assimilation focus remained a cornerstone of government policy for decades.

• Legislation Evolution:

  • The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 sought to partially reverse previous policies, restoring some degree of tribal governance.

  • The Indian population began to recover, with the census of 2000 reporting over 1.5 million Native Americans.

V. Mining: From Dishpan to Ore Breaker

• Mining Boom Factors:

  • The conquest of Native Americans and the establishment of railroads fueled the mining frontier.

  • California continued to yield gold, while the 1858 Pikes Peak gold rush led to a surge of miners to Colorado.

• Impact of the Comstock Lode:

  • The Comstock Lode was discovered in 1859 in Nevada, resulting in the extraction of gold and silver valued at approximately $340 million from 1860-1890.

  • Nevada was rapidly railroaded into the Union in 1864, partly to provide electoral votes for President Lincoln.

• Boomtown Dynamics:

  • States like Montana and Idaho witnessed frantic gold and silver seekers, leading to the establishment of boomtowns or “Helldoradoes.”

  • As mining boomed, so did lawlessness, with lynch law and vigilante justice trying to impose order.

• Transition to Corporate Mining:

  • As individual miners left when diggings dwindled, mining corporations took over, often using costly machinery and trained engineers.

  • The dyad of mining and industry played a critical role in wealth generation and American folklore, inspiring literary works by Bret Harte and Mark Twain.

VI. Beef Bonanzas and the Long Drive

• Cattle Marketing Issues:

  • A major concern was effectively transporting cattle to marketplaces, addressed through the advent of transcontinental railroads.

  • Highly industrialized meatpacking businesses emerged under influential figures like Swift and Armour.

• The Long Drive:

  • Texas cowboys drove large herds (1,000 to 10,000) over unfenced plains to rail terminals, grazing on free government grass.

  • The profitable drives lasted from 1866 to 1888, fully transporting over four million cattle.

• Impact of Railroads:

  • Railroads simultaneously facilitated and ultimately destabilized the Long Drives by bringing in competing homesteaders and sheepherders.

  • Severe winters and land overgrazing issues affected cattle raising, compelling an evolution towards larger operational scales.

• Cattle Raising Adaptations:

  • Ranchers learned to fence their properties, use winter feed, and raise better quality livestock.

  • The cowboy became a key part of American folklore, with many being African American and enjoying greater freedom than elsewhere in society.

VII. The Farmers' Frontier

• Homestead Act of 1862:

  • This Act allowed settlers to acquire 160 acres of land at a nominal fee by living on and improving it for five years, marking a shift from selling land for revenue toward giving away land to encourage settlement.

• Challenges Faced:

  • Approximately 500,000 families took advantage of the Act; however, many more families purchased land through other means.

  • Standard acres often proved inadequate on the drought-prone Great Plains, many settlers abandoned their efforts.

• Fraud and Speculation:

  • Speculators often manipulated land acquisition, gaining more land than actual farmers.

  • Corporations utilized “dummy” homesteaders to seize prime properties, leading to widespread fraud.

• Agricultural Innovations:

  • Innovations like “dry farming” emerged, adapted to arid conditions of the plains, leading to unintentional consequences such as the future Dust Bowl.

  • Successful adaptations included tough strains of wheat and outbreak of irrigation systems that transformed arid landscapes into productive agricultural areas.

VIII. The Far West Comes of Age

• Migration Waves:

  • From 1870s to 1890s, there was a significant surge in migration to the Great West, resulting in new states joining the Union, including Colorado (1876) and several states in 1889-1890.

• Oklahoma Settlement:

  • The land, termed “the Beautiful Land,” saw illegal influxes by “sooners” prior to its legal opening on April 22, 1889, attracting thousands of settlers and leading to rapid territorial development.

IX. The Fading Frontier

• Closure of the Frontier:

  • In 1890, a census declared there was no longer a discernible frontier line, which spurred numerous essays regarding the implications of this closure, such as Frederick Jackson Turner’s influential work.

• Consciousness of Land Limitation:

  • The government initiated actions to preserve dwindling resources, establishing national parks like Yellowstone in 1872.

• Economic and Psychological Implications:

  • The closing frontier ended a romantic phase of internal development for the nation, creating new economic challenges.

  • Contrary to the “safety valve” theory, few city dwellers moved to the frontier, indicating deeper urbanization by the late 19th century.

X. The Farm Becomes a Factory

• Evolution in Agriculture:

  • Farmers transitioned towards cash-crop production, utilizing profits to purchase goods and machinery.

• Mechanization of Farming:

  • The introduction of large machinery redefined farming, leading to the emergence of specialized, large-scale agribusinesses.

• California’s Agricultural Boom:

  • The Central Valley in California showcased agricultural innovation, with its farms significantly larger than national averages and profits bolstered through railroad transport.

XI. Deflation Dooms the Debtor

• Farmers' Financial Struggles:

  • Although high prices initially sustained farmers, low global prices and deflated currency became pressing concerns.

• Mounting Debt:

  • Farmers experienced increasing debts, with high-interest rates leading many into tenant living rather than ownership.

XII. Unhappy Farmers

• Natural Adversities:

  • Natural disasters such as droughts and pests severely impacted agricultural productivity, adding to farmers' frustrations.

• Corporate Control and Exploitation:

  • Farmers became dependent on corporations and were often exploited through high prices and unjust terms.

XIII. The Farmers Take Their Stand

• Grassroots Movements:

  • The Greenback movement and the National Grange (established in 1876) aimed to unite farmers in advocating for their needs and rights.

• Political Organizing:

  • Farmers attempted to regulate railroads through legislation, although many laws were poorly constructed.

XIV. Prelude to Populism

• Rural Discontent Manifesting:

  • The Farmers' Alliance emerged in the late 1870s to leverage cooperative buying and selling.

• Political Aspirations of Populists:

  • The People’s Party emerged to challenge existing financial systems, advocating for reforms such as a graduated income tax and nationalization of railroads.

XV. Coxey’s Army and the Pullman Strike

• Labor Movement Resentment:

  • Coxey’s Army pressured the government for economic reforms amid rising unemployment.

• Violent Labor Protests:

  • The Pullman Strikes represented the wider labor unrest during the era, with American Railway Union's initiation of the strike over wage cuts leading to government intervention and violent repression.

XVI. Golden McKinley and Silver Bryan

• Presidential Contest of 1896:

  • The election saw the clash between McKinley (Republican) and Bryan (Democrat), which represented diverging ideas regarding monetary policy and the future of America under economic pressure.

• Rising Tensions of Class Conflict:

  • Themes of class conflict emerged as differing economic interests clashed between farmers, laborers, and business elites.

XVII. Class Conflict: Plowholders Versus Bondholders

• Campaign Dynamics:

  • McKinley’s financial backing influenced the campaign, leading to significant electoral support from the business sectors.

• Significant Election Outcome:

  • The 1896 election highlighted the growing divide and set the stage for future political developments in America.

XVIII. Republican Stand-pattism Enthroned

• Post-Election Politics:

  • McKinley's presidency marked a return to conservative governance, where business interests thrived, and little was done to enforce regulatory measures.

• Economic Recovery Trends:

  • The economy began to stabilize in the late 1890s, prompting policies that favored protectionism and corporate growth.