Comprehensive United States History Cram Guide

Early Exploration and Colonial Foundations (1497–1650)

Exploration Timeline: * 1497: John Cabot lands in North America. * 1513: Ponce de Leon claims Florida for Spain. * 1524: Verrazano explores the North American Coast. * 1539–1542: Hernando de Soto explores the Mississippi River Valley. * 1540–1542: Coronado explores the area that will become the Southwestern United States. * 1565: The Spanish found the city of St. Augustine in Florida. * 1579: Sir Francis Drake explores the coast of California. * 1584–1587: Roanoke – known as the "lost colony."
English and European Settlements: * 1607: The British establish the Jamestown Colony. Characteristics included bad land, malaria, and a population of rich men seeking gold rather than farming. The Headright System was implemented to provide land in exchange for population, leading to people spreading out. * 1608: The French establish a colony at Quebec. * 1609: United Provinces (Dutch) establish claims in North America. * 1614: Tobacco cultivation is introduced in Virginia by Rolfe. * 1619: The first African slaves are brought to British America. Virginia begins its representative assembly, the House of Burgesses. * 1620: Plymouth Colony is founded. The Mayflower Compact is signed, establishing an agreement for rule by the majority. * 1624: New York is founded by the Dutch. * 1629: Massachusetts Bay Colony (Mass. Bay) is founded. Governor Winthrop describes it as a "City Upon a Hill." It features a bi-cameral legislature and established schools. * 1630: The Puritan Migration begins. * 1632: Maryland is established for profit as a proprietorship. * 1634: Roger Williams is banished from the Mass. Bay Colony. * 1635: Connecticut is founded. * 1636: Rhode Island is founded by Roger Williams. Harvard College is founded. * 1638: Delaware is founded, featuring the first church and first school. * 1649: The Maryland Toleration Act is passed for Christians; it was later repealed.

Expansion, Conflict, and Colonial Divergence (1650–1750)

Trade and Law: * 1650–1696: The Navigation Acts are enacted by Parliament to limit trade and place taxes on specific items. * 1660: The Half Way Covenant is created to bring people back into the church, signaling an erosion of strict Puritanism. * 1670: Charles II grants a charter for the Carolina colonies, known as a Restoration Colony. * 1672: Blue Laws are enacted in Connecticut, including death codes for those disagreeing with parents or the Bible.
Rebellions and Regional Differences: * 1676: Bacons Rebellion occurs in Virginia. Bacon seeks frontier protection from Royal Governor Berkeley. The rebellion is put down but marks the first uprising against the British. * 1682: Pennsylvania is founded by William Penn (a Quaker). It features the first library and becomes a center of thought. * Regional Comparison: * The North: Defined by laws/codes, the presence of families, smaller land plots leading to closeness, high social and economic mobility, the Puritan work ethic, and better relations with Indians. * The South: Dependent on crops (which "kills land"), less urbanized, characterized by poorer communication and transportation, problems with Indians, and slower defense responses.
Consolidation and Unrest: * 1686: Dominion of New England established under Royal Governor Andros. It was an attempt to unify Northern colonies to curb independence. It suspended liberties (e.g., town meetings). It failed when Andros left. * 1689–1713: King William's War (The War of the League of Augsburg). * 1692: The Salem Witchcraft Trials. * 1696: Parliamentary Act passed. * 1699–1750: Restrictions are placed on colonial manufacturing.
The Enlightenment: * Occurred in the $1700$ s. Focused on reason, natural rights, and Deism (the belief that God created the universe but does not control it). Key figures: John Locke, Adam Smith, Rousseau. * Colony Characteristics: Bi-cameral legislatures, town meetings, mobocracy used to oppose authority, small and elected legislatures where the governor acted like a "puppet," and a lack of British troops or standing armies. Voting was restricted to white, male landowners.

The Great Awakening to the French and Indian War (1702–1763)

Religious and Social Developments: * 1702–1713: Queen Anne's War (War of the Spanish Succession). * 1720–1740: The Great Awakening. Led by George Whitefield, Edwards, and Gibbens. It offered a threatening message of salvation for all, extreme piety, and the Divine Spirit. * 1733: Georgia Colony is founded as a buffer state. * Molasses Act: An import tax on molasses, sugar, and rum intended to curb trade with the French West Indies; it was not strictly enforced. * 1735: Zenger Trial. A victory for freedom of the press, establishing that truth is not libel. * 1740–1748: King George's War (War of the Austrian Succession).
The French and Indian War (1754–1763): * Conflict over the Ohio River Valley for trade and settlement. The French built forts, including Fort Duquesne, and maintained friendly relations with Indians. * English Governor Dunwittie, who held stock in the Ohio Land Company, sent George Washington to expel the French. The British declared war.
The Albany Plan of Union (1754): * Proposed for collective defense but failed, illustrating colonial disunity. * Colonial Rejection Reasons: Objections to taxation by the colony/crown, Southern states' reluctance to join Northern wars, and the desire for representation based on financial contributions. They believed the British should be responsible for protection and wanted an elected president. * The Crown's Rejection Reasons: Colonies would be making their own laws, providing their own protection, and gaining the right to declare war.

The End of Salutary Neglect and the Rise of Resistance (1761–1774)

Initial Tensions: * 1761: Writs of assistance (search warrants to enforce Navigation Acts) are introduced; James Otis opposes them. * 1763: The Treaty of Paris ends the French and Indian War. The French lose all territory. * Domestic Issues: The Paxton Boys Rebellion (dissatisfaction over frontier protection in PA) and Pontiac’s Rebellion (tribal organization against British movement). * Proclamation of 1763: Restricts settlement west of the Appalachians. Salutary Neglect Ends.
Taxation and Direct Protest: * 1764: The Sugar Act. Designed to raise revenue for England's debt. It cut the Molasses Act tax in half but represented the first direct tax. Objection: "No taxation without representation." * Currency Acts: Prevented the printing of colonial money. * 1765: The Stamp Act. Tax on printed materials to fund British troops in colonies. Colonists opposed the standing army. The Sons of Liberty enforced non-importation. * Stamp Act Congress: Protested the act, asserting colonies should only buy from England and deserve equal privileges. * 1766: Quartering Act. Required colonies to support British troops. * 1767: The Townshend Acts. Taxed lead, paint, paper, glass, and tea. Colonies reacted with non-importation and Samuel Adams' Circular Letter. The Governor of Massachusetts suspended the legislature. * 1770: The Boston Massacre. * Admiralty Courts: Royal courts paid for convictions, which colonists opposed.
Historiography of the Awakening: * Bonomi: View the awakening as a contest between Enlightenment and Pietism. * Butler: Argues the Awakening didn't occur because it was not united, involved different congregations, and lacked structure.
Escalation (1772–1774): * 1772: Samuel Adams organizes the Committees of Correspondence. The Gaspee Incident involves the burning of a British ship attempted to collect taxes. * 1773: The Tea Act. Reduced tea prices while granting England a monopoly. Leads to the Boston Tea Party. * 1774: The Intolerable Acts. Punished Boston through the Boston Port Act (closing ports), Massachusetts Government Act (banning town meetings, no trial by jury, military rule), and the Quartering Act. * Quebec Act: Added Quebec to the Ohio River Valley; Britain supported Catholic residents there who lacked trial by jury or elections.

The Continental Congresses and the Revolutionary War (1774–1783)

First Continental Congress (1774): * Convenes in Philadelphia. Consisted of moderates who did not yet want to split from England. Demanded the rights of Englishmen. * Joseph Galloway's Plan of Union: A proposed council with colonial delegates and a Crown-appointed president; it was rejected. * Declaration of Rights and Resolves: Rejected the Intolerable Acts and issued an ultimatum for trade. Established the Continental Association for enforcement.
Second Continental Congress (1775): * More radical than the first. Issued the "Declaration of Causes and Necessity of Taking up Arms." Appointed George Washington as commander. The Olive Branch Petition was the final, rejected attempt at reconciliation.
Independence Debate (1776): * R.H. Lee’s Resolution: Stated the colonies "should be independent states." * Case For Independence: Military advantages, loss of natural rights (trial by jury, quartering, taxation without representation), limited currency, the practicality of home rule, and the belief that it was the best time to unite. * Case Against Independence: Lack of military, punishment for broken laws, historical failures of democracy, lack of certain foreign support, and potential consequences of losing (unification issues, taxation for protection).
Key Revolutionary Events: * 1776: American Declaration of Independence; Thomas Paine's "Common Sense"; Battles of Long Island and Trenton. * 1777: Battle of Saratoga. The turning point of the Revolution. * 1777: Articles of Confederation. Adopted by Congress (authored by Dickinson). * 1778: Treaty of Alliance between the U.S. and France (sending navy and army). * 1779: Spain declares war on England. * 1781: British surrender at Yorktown following Cornwallis's loss. * 1783: Treaty of Peace. Independence was recognized, fishing rights granted, and loyalist property restitution was suggested. Britain promised to withdraw from forts (not fully followed), and free navigation of the Mississippi was granted.

The Articles of Confederation and the New Constitution (1777–1791)

Structure of the Articles of Confederation: * Established independent, free, and sovereign states. A union for defense. * Provides freedom of speech and debate. * Limitations: Individual states cannot enter alliances with foreign states or wage war without consent. Delegates were appointed annually; each state had one vote. The treasury depended on land value. Congress could not control trade or enter treaties without consent.
Post-War Unrest and Reform: * 1785: Land Ordinance established government responsibility over territory. Treaty of Hopewell ends hostilities with the Cherokee. * 1786: Shay's Rebellion. Farmers in a depression (lacking hard currency) wanted Massachusetts to print money. The rebellion was put down by donations, highlighting the failure of the Articles (no army). * 1787: Constitutional Convention. Originally intended to revise the Articles.
The Constitution of the United States: * Article I: House of Representatives (power to impeach, revenue bills) and Senate (try impeachments). Congress can tax, regulate commerce, declare war, and raise an army. * Article II: Executive is the commander, makes treaties with consent, and appoints judges. * Article III: Supreme Court has original jurisdiction. * Article IV/V: Protection against invasion; $\frac{2}{3}$ of both houses required to amend. * Great Compromise: Bi-cameral legislature (equality in Senate, popular in House). * 3/5 Compromise: Counting slaves for representation; no slave importation after $1808$ . * Northwest Ordinance: Prohibits slavery in the West; states admitted on equal status.
The Bill of Rights (1791): * I: Speech, press, religion, assembly. II: Right to bear arms. III: No quartering. IV: No search/seizure. V: Due process, no double jeopardy. VI: Speedy trial. VII: Jury trial. VIII: No cruel/unusual punishment. IX: Unenumerated rights. X: Rights reserved to states.

The Washington and Adams Presidencies (1789–1800)

George Washington (1789–1796): * 1789: Judiciary Act established courts below the Supreme Court. * Economic Strategy: First Bank of the United States; Hamilton’s Program (debt is good, promote manufacturing, alliance with Britain). * 1793: Eli Whitney invents the Cotton Gin. * 1794: Whiskey Rebellion. Washington used troops to put down farmers opposing an excise tax. * 1795: Jay Treaty. US trade restricted in specific ports; Britain promised to leave forts. Pinckney’s Treaty: With Spain, granted free navigation of the Mississippi. * 1796: Farewell Address. Warned of permanent alliances and political parties.
Hamilton vs. Jefferson: * Hamilton (Federalist): People checked by elite, strong central government, national debt as a binder, British model, and executive for life. * Jefferson (Republican): Government run by the people, central government is oppressive/expensive, against standing armies, and believed British government was corrupt.
John Adams (1796–1800): * 1796: Adams (Fed) elected with Jefferson (Rep) as VP. * XYZ Affair: Tensions with France; they demanded money to stop attacking ships ( $\text{no money, no war}$ ). * 1798: Alien and Sedition Acts. Illegal to publish criticism of the government. * 1798–1799: Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. Authored by Madison and Jefferson; argued states could nullify unconstitutional laws. * 1799: Fries Uprising. Opposed federal property tax. * 1800: Convention of 1800. Negotiation with France.

The Jeffersonian and Madison Eras (1800–1816)

Thomas Jefferson (1800–1808): * 1803: Louisiana Purchase. Federalists opposed it; established "loose construction" of the Constitution. * Marbury vs. Madison: Establishes judicial review. * 12th Amendment: Separate ballots for President and VP. * 1807: Embargo Act. Stopped exports to avoid war/impressment; Federalists objected due to trade loss. * 1808: African Slave Trade ends.
James Madison (1808–1816): * 1809: Nonintercourse Act. Resumed trade except with France and Britain. * 1810: Fletcher vs. Pack. State actions can be declared unconstitutional. * 1811: Battle of Tippecanoe. Harrison defeats Tecumseh. * War of 1812 (1812–1814): Protested trade interference and impressment. "War Hawks" wanted Canada. Federalists opposed the war. * 1814: Treaty of Ghent. Ended war as a status-quo. * Hartford Convention: Federalist opposition to the war; led to the end of the party.

The Era of Good Feelings and Jacksonian Democracy (1816–1840)

James Monroe (1816–1824): * Era of Good Feelings: Rise of the 2nd Bank of the U.S. and protective tariffs. * Henry Clay’s American System: Federally funded domestic improvements and protective tariffs. * 1819: Transcontinental Treaty. U.S. gets Florida from Spain. * 1820: Missouri Compromise. Maine as free state, Missouri as slave state; no slavery north of $\text{36' 30''}$ . * 1823: Monroe Doctrine. No future colonization of the Western hemisphere.
John Quincy Adams (1824–1828): * 1824: Adams defeats Jackson in the "Corrupt Bargain." * 1825: Erie Canal opens. * 1828: Tariff of Abominations. High protective tariff; South Carolina Exposition and Protest (Calhoun) reaffirms nullification.
Andrew Jackson (1828–1836): * Politics: "Kitchen Cabinet" of friends. Vetoed the Maysville Road Bill. * 1831: The Liberator begins publication. Nat Turner Rebellion occurs. * 1831–1838: Trail of Tears. Southern Indians removed to Oklahoma. * Nullification Crisis (1832): Calhoun resigns. Force Bill allows president to enforce tariffs. Ordinance of Nullification by SC is eventually reduced via Clay's negotiation. * Bank War: Jackson vetoes the Bank of U.S. re-charter. Roger Taney removes federal funds. * 1836: Specie Circular. Western land must be paid for with hard currency.
Martin Van Buren (1836–1840) and William Henry Harrison: * Panic of 1837: Caused by withdrawal of funds from the Bank of the U.S. Van Buren does nothing. * 1840: Independent Treasury System. Created vaults for federal money. * 1840: Harrison (Whig) elected but dies; John Tyler becomes president.

Manifest Destiny, Sectionalism, and the Mexican-American War (1840–1860)

John Tyler (1840–1844): * 1842: Tariff Bill. Raised tariffs back to 1832 levels. * 1844: Election of Polk (Democrat) who runs on "54' 40' or Fight."
James K. Polk (1844–1848): * Mexican-American War (1846–1848): Provoked by movement into disputed Rio-Grande territory. * 1846: Wilmot Proviso. Proposed no slavery in new Mexican territories; rejected. * 1848: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. U.S. gets AZ, CA, CO, NV, NM, UT, and WY. * 1848: Gold discovered at Sutter's Mill. Seneca Falls Convention for women's rights.
Crisis of the 1850s: * Compromise of 1850: CA is a free state; other areas use popular sovereignty; fugitive slave law strengthened. * 1854: Kansas-Nebraska Act. Slavery determined by popular sovereignty, leading to "Bleeding Kansas." * 1857: Dred Scott Decision. Slaves are property; Missouri Compromise ruled unconstitutional. * 1859: John Brown’s Raid. Attempted slave uprising at Harpers Ferry.

The Civil War and Reconstruction (1860–1877)

Abraham Lincoln (1860–1865): * Secession: South Carolina secedes following Lincoln's election. Confederacy established with Jefferson Davis as President. * Civil War (1861–1865): Begins at Fort Sumter. Lincoln suspends habeas corpus (Ex Parte Marryman). * Key Legislation: Pacific RR Act, Homestead Act (1862), Banking Acts (1863). * War Milestones: Antietam (1862), Emancipation Proclamation (1863), Gettysburg (1863). * 1865: Lee surrenders at Appomattox. Lincoln assassinated.
Reconstruction Presidencies: * Andrew Johnson (1865–1868): Amnesty plan for Confederates. Thirteenth Amendment (abolishes slavery). Tenure of Office Act leads to impeachment (declared unconstitutional). * 14th Amendment (1868): Defines citizenship and equal protection. * Ulysses S. Grant (1868–1876): Transcontinental RR completed (1869). 15th amendment ratified. Era marked by scandals like Credit Mobilier. * Rutherford B. Hayes (1876–1880): Compromise of 1877 ends Reconstruction; troops withdrawn from the South.

The Gilded Age, Industrialization, and Populism (1877–1900)

Rise of Business and Labor: * Standard Oil and Carnegie Steel are formed. * Labor Unions: National Labor Union (1866); Knights of Labor (1869/1879); American Federation of Labor (1886) for skilled workers only. * 1887: Interstate Commerce Act. Regulated railroads. * 1890: Sherman Antitrust Act. Illegalized trusts in restraint of trade.
The Populist Movement: * 1892 Omaha Platform: Called for 8hr work day, nationalization of RR, and coinage of silver. * 1896: McKinley (Rep) defeats Bryan (Dem) after "Cross of Gold" speech.
Imperialism: * 1898: Spanish-American War. Triggered by the Maine explosion and yellow journalism. Peace of Paris gives U.S. Puerto Rico, Philippines, and Guam.

The Progressive Era and World War I (1900–1920)

Theodore Roosevelt (1900–1908): * Progressive Reforms: Meat Inspection Act (following "The Jungle"), Hepburn Act, Pure Food and Drug Act. * Foreign Policy: Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. Acquisition of the Panama Canal Zone.
Woodrow Wilson (1912–1920): * 16th Amendment: Income tax. 17th Amendment: Popular election of Senators. * World War I: U.S. enters in $1917$ following submarine warfare and the Zimmerman Note. * 1918: Fourteen Points. Included the League of Nations. * 1920: 19th Amendment. Women’s suffrage granted.

The Interwar Years and The Great Depression (1920–1939)

The 1920s: * Characterized by Prohibition (18th Amendment), the Scopes Monkey Trial (1925), and the First Commercial radio broadcast. * 1929: Stock Market Crash. Causes: overproduction, speculation, easy credit, and debt.
Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal: * Agencies: WPA (artists/writers), CCC (conservation), NIRA (business codes), AAA (agriculture), TVA (electricity), Social Security Act (1935). * Neutrality Acts: Attempted to keep U.S. out of foreign conflicts in the late $1930$ s.

World War II and the Early Cold War (1941–1960)

World War II (1941–1945): * 1941: Attack on Pearl Harbor. * 1944: D-Day. GI Bill created. * 1945: Yalta and Potsdam conferences. Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Roosevelt dies.
Cold War Under Truman and Eisenhower: * Containment: Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan (1947), and NATO (1949). * 1950–1953: Korean War. * McCarthyism: Wide-scale fear of Communism. * 1954: Brown vs. Board of Education. Overturns Plessy vs. Ferguson. * 1957: Sputnik launch; Space Race begins. Little Rock school desegregation.

The Sixties and Beyond (1960–1988)

1960s: * Kennedy (1960–1963): Bay of Pigs, Cuban Missile Crisis. Assassinated in 1963. * Johnson (1963–1968): Great Society – Medicare/Medicaid, Civil Rights Act (1964), Voting Rights Act (1965). Escalation of the Vietnam War via the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
1970s and 1980s: * Nixon (1968–1974): Vietnamization, SALT I, Watergate Scandal, Resignation in 1974. * Carter (1976–1980): Camp David Accords, Iran Hostage Crisis, Three Mile Island. * Reagan (1980–1988): "Reaganomics" (supply-side economics), military invasion of Grenada, and the INF Treaty with Russia.