Introduction to Psychology

5.1 Define the term learning.
5.2 Identify the key elements of classical conditioning (Pavlov’s experiment).
5.3 Apply classical conditioning to phobias and taste aversions.
5.4 Identify the contributions of Thorndike and Skinner to operant conditioning.
5.5 Differentiate between primary and secondary reinforcers and positive and negative reinforcement.
5.6 Identify the four schedules of reinforcement.
5.7 Identify the effect that punishment has on behavior.
5.8 Explain discriminant stimuli, extinction, generalization, and spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning.

Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience or practice.
Key points:
- Change must be relatively permanent.
- Change results from experience, not maturation (e.g., growth).

Timeframe: 1849-1936, Russian physiologist.
Key contributions:
- Studied classical conditioning principles: reflexes, stimuli, responses.

Neutral Stimulus (NS): Does not elicit any response before conditioning.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers an unconditioned response.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): Unlearned response to UCS.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Neutral stimulus that comes to evoke a conditioned response after conditioning.
Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to previously neutral stimulus.

Extinction: Gradual weakening of conditioned response when the CS is presented without the UCS.
Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a period of rest.

Stage 1: CS (Metronome) → UCR (Salivation)
Stage 2: CS1 (Metronome) → CR (Salivation) + CS2 (new stimulus) → CR (Salivation).

Conditioned Emotional Response: Emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli.
Example: The Little Albert experiment, where a child developed a fear of white rats.

Defined as learning through consequences of voluntary behavior.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect:
- Actions followed by pleasurable consequences are likely to be repeated.
- Actions followed by unpleasant consequences are unlikely to be repeated.
B.F. Skinner:
- Focused on observable and measurable behavior.
- Emphasized the role of reinforcement and punishment in affecting behavior.

Primary Reinforcers: Naturally reinforcing (e.g., food, water).
Secondary Reinforcers: Gain their reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers.
Positive Reinforcement: Addition of a pleasurable stimulus.
Negative Reinforcement: Removal of an aversive stimulus.

Negative Reinforcement:
- Pedro washing the car to avoid nagging.
- Fatema serving customers cheerfully to increase tips.
Positive Reinforcement:
- Ali talking in a funny voice to gain attention.
- Maryam submitting her report on time to avoid penalties.

Continuous Reinforcement: Every correct response is reinforced.
Partial Reinforcement Effect: Responses reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses resist extinction better.
Fixed Interval: Predictable time frame (e.g., weekly pay).
Variable Interval: Unpredictable time frame (e.g., fishing).
Fixed Ratio: Set number of responses required (e.g., paid per item).
Variable Ratio: Varying responses required for reinforcement (e.g., gambling).

Positive Punishment: Addition of unpleasant stimulus (e.g., scolding).
Negative Punishment: Removal of a pleasant stimulus (e.g., taking away privileges).

Should be: immediate, consistent, and paired with reinforcement for acceptable behavior.
Drawbacks of severe punishment include:
- Fear and anxiety, lying, and modeling of aggression.

Concept: Tendency to fail to act due to a history of repeated failures (Seligman's studies).

Children imitated aggressive behavior they observed from models, indicating learning through observation.