Social Psychology, Personality, and Motivation Study Guide

Attribution Theory and Person Perception

Attribution Theory Definition: This is the framework used to understand how people interpret and explain their own behavior and the behavior of others. These explanations, termed "attributions," shape an individual's perceptions, emotions, and subsequent actions.
Types of Attributions: * Dispositional (Internal) Attributions: These focus on internal traits, such as intelligence, personality flaws or strengths, or personal motivation. * Example: If a student performs well on a test, their teacher might attribute this success specifically to their intelligence or a strong work ethic. * Situational (External) Attributions: these emphasize external circumstances or environmental factors outside of the individual's control. * Example: If a student is late to class, the teacher might attribute it to heavy traffic or a delayed bus.
Explanatory Style: This refers to a person’s habitual way of explaining life events, which influences their emotions and actions. * Optimistic Explanatory Style: Attributes good events to stable, internal factors (e.g., "I aced the exam because I studied hard") and bad events to temporary, external causes (e.g., "I failed because the questions were poorly written"). * Pessimistic Explanatory Style: Attributes good events to external, temporary factors (e.g., "I aced the exam because it was easy") and bad events to internal, stable causes (e.g., "I failed because I am not smart").
Attribution Biases: Systematic errors people make in their attributions. * Actor/Observer Bias: The tendency to attribute one's own actions to situational factors but others’ actions to dispositional traits. * Self-view: "I did it because of the situation." * Other-view: "They did it because of who they are." * Example: If a person cuts someone off in traffic, they blame being late for work ( $situational$ ). If someone else does it, they think the driver is rude or reckless ( $dispositional$ ). * Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE): The overemphasis on dispositional factors and the underestimation of situational factors when explaining others’ behavior. * Example: Observing a coworker miss a deadline and thinking they are lazy rather than considering they might have unexpected personal issues. * Self-Serving Bias: The tendency to attribute personal successes to dispositional factors (internal) and failures to situational factors (external). * Example: A student who aces a test credits their intelligence, but if they fail, they blame the difficulty of the test.
Application to Behavior: * Interpersonal Dynamics: Biases like the FAE and actor/observer bias create misunderstandings and conflict in relationships. * Self-Perception: Self-serving bias protects self-esteem but can hinder accountability and growth.

Locus of Control

Definition: The degree to which individuals believe they have control over the outcomes of events in their lives, playing a critical role in motivation, decision-making, and mental health.
Internal Locus of Control: The belief that one's own actions, efforts, and decisions influence outcomes. * Motivation: Individuals are proactive and take responsibility for success and failure. * Problem-Solving: Characterized by active coping strategies when facing challenges. * Mental Health: Associated with positive outcomes such as lower stress and anxiety because individuals feel empowered to change circumstances.
External Locus of Control: The belief that external factors such as luck, fate, or the actions of others determine outcomes. * Motivation: Individuals may feel less motivated to take initiative because they perceive outcomes as beyond their control. * Learned Helplessness: If outcomes are consistently negative despite effort, they may stop trying altogether. * Mental Health: Linked to feelings of helplessness, stress, and depression.
Impact Areas: * Self-Efficacy: Internal locus of control enhances self-efficacy (belief in one’s ability), while external locus of control reduces it. * Health and Wellness: Internally oriented individuals are more likely to exercise and avoid harmful habits. Externally oriented individuals might neglect care, believing health is determined by fate. * Resilience: Internal locus of control promotes resilience by focusing on controllable aspects of a situation. * Relationships: Internal locus leads to constructive conflict resolution; external locus leads to blaming others, fostering resentment.

Perception

Definition: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to make sense of the environment, shaped by individual experiences, beliefs, and biases.
Mere Exposure Effect: The phenomenon where repeated exposure to a stimulus increases a person’s preference for it. * Example: Initially disliking a song but growing to enjoy it after hearing it multiple times on the radio. * Impact: Increases attraction and trust toward familiar people.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A belief or expectation about a person or situation that influences one’s behavior, eliciting responses that confirm the original belief. * The Loop: Perception shapes behavior $ightarrow$ behavior influences the other's response $ightarrow$ response reinforces the original perception.
Social Comparison: The process of evaluating oneself by comparing to others. * Upward Comparison: Comparing to someone perceived as better ( $motivation$ or $inadequacy$ ). * Downward Comparison: Comparing to someone perceived as worse ( $boosts self-esteem$ or $fosters complacency$ ).
Relative Deprivation: The perception that one is worse off compared to others based on subjective comparisons. * Impact: Leads to frustration, resentment, injustice, and can drive group dynamics like protests or advocacy.

Attitude Formation and Change

Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination: * Stereotype: A generalized belief about a group of people (e.g., all teenagers are irresponsible). * Prejudice: Negative attitudes toward a group. * Discrimination: Negative behaviors directed toward a group. * Cognitive Function: Stereotypes simplify social information to reduce cognitive load, acting as shortcuts, though they often lead to inaccuracies. * Selective Attention: People notice information that supports the stereotype and ignore contradictory evidence ( $confirmation bias$ ).
Implicit Attitudes: Unconscious beliefs or evaluations that influence behavior without awareness. * Example: A teacher unknowingly calling on male students more often due to implicit gender bias. * Research Tool: Implicit Association Tests (IAT) are used to reveal these biases.
Psychological Mechanisms Reinforcing Bias: * Just-World Phenomenon: The belief that the world is fair and people get what they deserve (e.g., assuming a marginalized group is poor due to laziness). * Out-Group Homogeneity Bias: Perceiving members of an out-group as more similar to one another than members of the in-group. * In-Group Bias: Favoring members of one’s own group over others (e.g., preferential treatment for coworkers with similar backgrounds). * Ethnocentrism: Evaluating other cultures based on the standards of one’s own culture (e.g., judging another's tradition as "wrong").

Belief Perseverance and Cognitive Dissonance

Belief Perseverance: The tendency to maintain an initial belief even when presented with contradictory evidence. * Example: Believing in astrology by noticing aligning predictions and disregarding failed ones. * Maintenance: People use confirmation bias to selectively interpret info that supports their view, creating a closed feedback loop.
Cognitive Dissonance: A state of mental discomfort experienced when holding two conflicting cognitions (attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors). * Example: A smoker who knows smoking causes cancer ( $knowledge$ ) but continues to smoke ( $action$ ). * Resolution Strategies: 1. Changing the Attitude: "Health risks are exaggerated." 2. Changing the Behavior: Quitting smoking. 3. Adding a Justification: "I only smoke occasionally."
Interactions: Belief perseverance can hinder change by preventing the acknowledgment of evidence, thus prolonging dissonance. Change usually occurs when individuals feel personally responsible for the inconsistency (Internal Justification).

Psychology of Social Situations

Social Norms: Unwritten rules or expectations about appropriate behavior in specific contexts (e.g., shaking hands, waiting in line).
Social Influence Theory: Occurs when thoughts/feelings are affected by others. * Informational Influence: Conforming because others provide info about what is correct. * Normative Influence: Conforming to gain acceptance or avoid rejection.
Persuasion & The Elaboration Likelihood Model: * Central Route: Focuses on content and quality of arguments ( $lasting change$ ). * Peripheral Route: Focuses on superficial cues like attractiveness or emotional appeal ( $temporary change$ ). * Halo Effect: Generalizing positivity from one area (e.g., attractiveness) to others (e.g., trustworthiness).
Persuasion Techniques: * Foot-In-The-Door: Asking for a small request first, followed by a larger one (e.g., petition before donation). * Door-In-The-Face: Making a large, unreasonable request first (likely declined), followed by a smaller request (e.g., asking for $500$ before asking for $20$ ).
Conformity (Solomon Asch): Adjusting behavior to align with group norms. Increased by larger group size, unanimity, and higher social status of the group.
Obedience (Stanley Milgram): Complying with an authority figure. Strengthened by proximity to authority, perceived legitimacy, and lack of dissent.

Social Groups and Dynamics

Cultural Phenomena: * Individualism: Values personal goals, autonomy, and self-reliance. * Collectivism: Values group goals, interdependence, and social harmony. * Multiculturalism: Values diverse perspectives and promotes inclusivity to mediate conflict.
Group Dynamics: * Groupthink: Striving for consensus at the expense of critical thinking (e.g., a management team agreeing to a flawed strategy to avoid conflict). * Diffusion of Responsibility: Feeling less personal responsibility when others are present ( $Bystander Effect$ ). * Social Loafing: Reduction in individual effort when working in a group (e.g., a student contributing less because they expect others to do the work). * Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness and accountability in a group, leading to impulsive behavior (e.g., anonymous rioters). * Social Facilitation: Improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks when others are present (e.g., athlete running faster in a race). * False Consensus Effect: Overestimating the extent to which others share our beliefs.
Conflict and Cooperation: * Superordinate Goals: Goals requiring collaboration between conflicting groups to achieve (e.g., rival teams raising money for charity). * Social Traps: Situations where short-term individual gains lead to long-term collective losses (e.g., overfishing).
Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychologists: Study these dynamics to design team structures, reduce social loafing, and enhance motivation.

Prosocial Behavior

Altruism: Acting to benefit others without expecting reward or gain (e.g., anonymous donation).
Social Debt/Obligation: Acting prosocially because someone else helped you first, creating reciprocal relationships.
Encouraging Norms: * Social Reciprocity Norm: Expectation that people will help those who have helped them. * Social Responsibility Norm: Expectation to help those who depend on us (e.g., elderly, children) even without reciprocation.
Bystander Effect (Darley & Latane): People are less likely to help when others are present. * Pluralistic Ignorance: Interpreting the inaction of others as a signal that help is not needed. * Kitty Genovese Case: The famous case that spurred research into how groups reduce intervention likelihood.

Personality Theories: Psychodynamic and Humanistic

Psychodynamic Theory (Sigmund Freud): * Unconscious Mind: Contains memories and desires outside awareness. * Components: Id (primal instincts), Ego (rational mediator), Superego (moral standards). * Ego Defense Mechanisms: * Denial: Refusing to acknowledge reality. * Displacement: Redirecting emotions to a safer target (e.g., yelling at a coworker instead of the boss). * Projection: Attributing your unacceptable feelings to others. * Rationalization: Justifying behavior with false reasons. * Reaction Formation: Behaving opposite to true feelings. * Regression: Reverting to earlier developmental stage behaviors (e.g., adult temper tantrum). * Repression: Unconsciously blocking painful memories. * Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable ones (e.g., aggression into sports). * Projective Tests: Uncover unconscious content via ambiguous stimuli. * Rorschach Inkblot Test: Analyzing themes in inkblot descriptions. * Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Creating stories about ambiguous scenes. * Sentence Completion Test: Finishing incomplete sentences.
Humanistic Theory (Carl Rogers): * Self-Actualization: The innate drive to achieve one's fullest potential. * Unconditional Positive Regard: Acceptance and love given without conditions. * Conditional Positive Regard: Approval contingent on meeting expectations. * Self-Concept: Perception of oneself. Congruence refers to the overlap between the "ideal self" and "actual self." * Q-Sort Technique: A tool where individuals sort statements to measure alignment between actual and ideal self.

Social-Cognitive and Trait Theories of Personality

Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura): * Reciprocal Determinism: The dynamic interaction between Personal Factors (beliefs), Behavior (actions), and Environmental Factors (social context). * Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific tasks. High self-efficacy leads to persistence; low self-efficacy leads to avoidance. * Self-Esteem: The overall evaluation of one's worth (distinct from task-specific self-efficacy).
Trait Theory: Focuses on stable, enduring characteristics. * Big Five Theory (OCEAN): 1. Openness: Imaginative/curious vs. conventional. 2. Conscientiousness: Organized/disciplined vs. careless. 3. Extraversion: Sociable/energetic vs. reserved. 4. Agreeableness: Cooperative/empathetic vs. critical. 5. Neuroticism: Anxious/moody vs. calm/stable. * Measurements: Self-Report Inventories (NEO Personality Inventory, Big Five Inventory), Observer Reports, and Behavioral Measures (digital footprints).

Motivation and Emotion

Motivation Theories: * Drive-Reduction Theory: Motivation arises from the need to reduce internal tension from biological needs (hunger/thirst). * Arousal Theory: Seeking an optimal level of alertness; avoiding boredom or stress. * Self-Determination Theory (SDT): Driven by needs for Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness. Includes Intrinsic (internal satisfaction) and Extrinsic (external rewards) motivation. * Incentive Theory: External rewards pull behavior. * Lewin’s Conflict Theory: Approach-Approach, Avoidance-Avoidance, and Approach-Avoidance. * Sensation Seeking: Biologically predisposed pursuit of novel experiences (Thrill Seeking, Experience Seeking, Disinhibition, Boredom Susceptibility). * Yerkes-Dodson Law: There is an optimal level of stress/pressure for peak performance.
Eating and Belonging: * Ghrelin: Hormone from the stomach that increases hunger. * Leptin: Hormone from fat cells that signals satiety (fullness). * Need to Belong: Fundamental human need to form connections; lack of it leads to loneliness and depression.
Emotion: * Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Facial expressions can influence emotional experience (e.g., smiling enhances happiness). * Cognitive Labeling: Interpreting physiological arousal (e.g., racing heart labeled as fear vs. excitement). * Broaden and Build Theory: Positive emotions broaden cognitive tendencies and build skills/resources. * Display Rules: Cultural norms regulating when and how emotions are expressed (e.g., men encouraged to suppress sadness in some cultures).