Unit 3 HIST 1010 Burke
During the period of nomadic invasion of europe and asia there were some common elements in their spread:
Nomadic people generally learned to fight on horseback, which gave them speed
Fought on the attack, as they rarely had permanent settlement to defense. Therefore they were difficult to defeat in a conventional manner
They did have sophisticated social orders based on kinship alliances between these families
The seljuk turks
Were turkish nomads who entered Persia in the early 11th century
The seljuks were sunni muslims fought local Ghaznavids and latter Persian shi’ites
Under the Sultan Alp Arslan, they intended to expand south into egypt to destroy the fatimid caliphate
The battle of Manzikert diverted the Arslan from egypt, offering more desirable territory in the anatolian peninsula
The seljuk upper class adopted the Persian language Farsi. Lower class spoke turkish with farsi phrases
They continued to persecuting shiites
This persecution led to the formation of secret shiite group: the Hashshashin
The remarkable persian chief minister to the early seljuk sultans, Nizam al Mulk, was assassinated by shiite killers in 1092
This led to a diversion of the Seljuk empire into 2 primary parts: the Sultanate of Rum in west, and Khwarazm empire in the east
Temujin was a mongol leader who was able to unify most of the mongo; tribes by 1206 ce when he was named Genghis Khan
Over the next 21 years he created a vast empire aided by muslim Uighur Turks
Once his power in mongolia was consolidated, he move first against the Jurchen Jin EMpire in china in 1211
By 1215 Khans forces attacked the Jin capital
Later, prompted by the murder of his trade emissaries to the Khwarazm empire, he lashed out to the west in 1219 and virtually destroyed it
Genghis Khan was a remarkable military leaders
He overthrew the traditional aristocracy in his military, preferring meritocracy over family
He developed advanced military tactics in concert with traditional Mongol weapons, and later the weapons from other cultures
He employed psychological in addition to military power in order to win battles without fighting
Following his death his son Ogodei became the great khan in the eastern territory of china– he was responsible for extending the empire into Russia and eastern europe
He died in 1241 ce and was succeeded by his nephew Khubilai
Khubilai was named great Khan in 1269 and quickly moved to conquer Snog china. Claimed the mandate of heaven and began the Yuan dynasty in 1271
In 1279 he completed the conquest of china, and moved the mongol capital from Karakorum to Khanbali (Beijing)
In 1274 and 1281 the mongols dispatched invasion fleets with the aim to conquer japan
Fortunately for the japanese, both fleets encountered severe storms and destroyed mongol ships
Seeing this as intervention by the gods the japanese refer to these stoms as the kamikaze
Khubilai was never accepted as emperor by most Chinese who saw the Mongols as inferior foreigners. Confucian scholars resented the removal of their civil service exam and placement of mongols in important positions
They also resented the status of mongol women and the practice of religious tolerance by the mongols
Hulagu Khan was responsible for resuming the war against the remnants of the Khwarazm attack and conquered the Sultanate of Rum in 1243, and attacked the shiite assassin fortresses, eliminating most of their followers
Finally attacked and conquered the sunni capital of abbasid caliphate, Baghdad, in 1258
Il-Khans (minor khans) were descendants of Hulagu khan, ruling a destroyed land, they were initially challenged by islamic law and culture, but later assimilated themselves into local culture
Some like Mahumud Ghazan adopted islam and even tolerated minority Shi’ite population
The Khanate of the Golden Horde was begun by Batu Khan's invasion into Russia in 1237. The mongols generally left the Russians to their own affairs as long as they paid tribute to the Khanate
The mongols, called Tatars by the Russians, tended to live in their own settlements rather than mingle with the Russians
This arrangement ended in 1480 when Tsar Ivan III refused to pay tribute rather than attack, the Mongols simply left
The jagadai Khanate was limited in its ability to expand without its having to fight the surrounding khanates
Relying primarily on its traditional Mongol identity, it eventually attacked the khanate of the great khan in 1270. Its leader Kaidu, grandson of Ogedai, was extremely traditional regarding mongol behavior
He continued his campaign against the great khan until 1301 when Kaidu dies, and by 1340 the Jagadai Khanate was divided and declining
What did Mongols achieve?
Pax mongolica
Increased trade between asia and europe
Transfer of technologies that eventually changed western civilization (horse stirrups, printing, paper, gunpowder)
Transfer of disease
Dark ages
Medieval period better known as the middle ages lasted from around 410 ce as roman empire fell and the 1300s when the renaissance began in italy
The Middle ages are known sometimes as the European dark age. However they were far from being truly dark as religious orders and their monasteries kept writing, education, and technological development alive during that period
In western europe the disappearance of imperial center caused most areas to develop an agricultural way of life
This later developed into feudalism– a combo of roman and germanic traditions. Under feudalism, the king owned all land, and greeted the rights to work his lands to nobles, who owed him military service and taxes
Nobles were known as vassals. The lands that were granted to them were called fiefs
Lords and nobles were vassals to the king, and owed allegiance and taxes, they would also pay for the training of soldiers and equip armies if necessary
Peasants included agricultural workers and craftspeople. They word rent and taxes to the lords, as well as allegiance to the king
Peasants worked the land for the nob;les and lords. It was a generally hard lie of agricultural labor, but in many places peasants has legal rights and were even able to petition their lords for redress of grievances
Peasants were NOT slaves, but were tied to the fiefs on which they worked and lived
A moderate climate and advances in agriculture– nobley the open field system, and layer crop rotation, allowed for growth in food production
Allowing pieces of land to go fallow or unplated, natural nutrients could build back up in the soil
Monasteries were where christian monks loved. These monks were from different denominations. They studied and practiced their religion and lived in relative isolation from the outside world
Monasteries also served to educate the children of the wealthy in religion, reading, and writing
At this time all christian services and texts were in latin. Monasteries along with islamic madrassas preceded the modern university
The monasteries were also the centers of early industry. The monks of the benedictine order believed that labor was a means of meditation and had a saying “to work is to pray”
In order to perform work, benedictine monks developed many areas of industry and harnessed water power in the making of things like flour, leather, metalwork, ceramics, and beer. Benedictine monasteries became involved in trade and some were quite wealthy
Before the development of the printing press, all bibles has to be hand copied. This was a way of practicing one's latin. There were strict religious rules about how one was to behave, dress, and eat
Most monasteries were self-sufficient and could isolate themselves from the general public necessary
Uniting the west after fall of rome
King cloves was a christian king who expanded his kingdom into france and germany
In 732 charles martel defeated muslim forces at tours, preventing further spread of islam throughout europe. He also supported st. boniface and the benedictine orders effort to spread christianity throughout france and central europe
In gratitude st boniface anointed martels son pepin the short as king of the franks, beginning the carolingian dynasty in 751 ce
Pepin’s son, Charles stood over 6 ft tall and was known as “charles the great” or Charlemagne
Conquering former muslim territory, German in Saxony, Lombards in northern Italy, as well as Byzantine territory, he united western and central europe for the first time since the fall of rome
On christmas day 800 CE. Pope Leo III, grateful from Charlemagne's aid and restoration to the papacy named him “Charles Augustus, Emperor of the Romans”
Leo’s anointing of Charlemange caused distress in the Byzantine empire, who feared a renewed western roman empire. This helped lead to the schism of 1054
Charlemagne died in 814 and by 843 his grandsons had divided his empire into 3 kingdoms
Beginning in the 8th century ce people from scandinavia known as Norsemen or Vikings, began raiding the British Isles and Europe. They also invaded to the easy and as far south as the Black sea and the Mediterranean
The norsemen conquered the northwestern french coast which became known as normandy.
In 1066 the norman descendants of the vikings invaded and conquered Anglo-saxon england
Disaster of 1066
Haley’s comet
Saracen invasion during the Umayyad Caliphate began raiding northward from north africa into southern europe.
Saracens even plundered Rome in 846 ce. Yet they did foster contact between muslim and christian societies and encouraged trade
Magyar people moved in from the east and plundered central europe in the tenth century. Eventually being stopped by King Otto I in the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 ce
Later settled in Hungary
The conqueror of the Magyars, Otto I was crowned by the Pope in 962 as emperor. Otto also claimed connections to the Christian Church of ROme and its Roman heritage. He became the 1st Holy Roman Emperor.
During the middle ages, many cities began to erect large churches called cathedrals. These large structures reached higher and higher as physical symbols of a cities devotion to God
By the 1100s a new form of architecture emerged in France: Gothic. Was characterized by tall, open looking structures that relied on the use of pointed arches for strength.
A city’s cathedral became a center of pride, and cities built larger and larger cathedrals to try and outdo one another
These buildings were built taller and taller and many collapsed until new means of building were put to use
By the 11th century, christian kingdoms in the northern Iberian peninsula began to fight against muslim rule in the south. This was known as the “Reconquista”
What behan as a religious sense of duty to reclaim christian territories from muslim control quickly grew into a series of religiously-sanctioned wars known as the Crusades which began in 1095-1291
Crusades began in 1095 after a speech given by Pope Urban II in support of the Byzantine EMperor Alexios Kommemnos, whose territory was being invaded from the west by Seljuk Turkish forces. This might have been an attempt to rejoin the 2 christian churches following the great schism of 1054.
Although the initial goal of crusades was to help fellow christian kingdoms. The goal soon included “liberating” Jerusalem and the Holy Lands from Muslim occupation
Knights who went out to crusade were marked by the cross– gave them their name
The knights were given holy dispensation, forgiveness, for any mortal sins that they might commit. This meant they were able to commit murder and theft without punishment
The crusades later became about creating one's own kingdom in the Holy Lands
Because of limited amount of land in europe, and a king's eldest son stood to inherit the kingdom when the father dies (primogeniture), the younger sons of noblemen, as well as knights sough to carve out their own kingdoms in the holy land
In doing so many came into close contact with islamic culture and as a result many items and technologies came with them as they returned from the Crusades
Crusades were a mixture of victory and defeat for the christian west:
1st crusade was a victory from christians, resulting in several new christian kingdoms being created in the holy lands
2nd crusade, authorized by Pope Eugenius and led by the king of France and the emperor of germany. Was a disaster for the crusades by the Turks in anatolia
3rd crusade was even worse for the crusading forces who faced the talented Misim commander Salah al-Din, who had reclaimed holy land
Notable casualty: the german emperor Fredrick Barbarossa, drowned while crossing a river while wearing armor
Phillip II of france let the crusade early due to illness
Richard I lionheart continued the crusade, eventually defeating Saladin in several battles. Failed to retake Jerusleam. Returning from the crusade, richard was captured and helped for ransom by Leopold V of Austria after his ship ran aground and Richard was forces to travel home across Europe
4th crusade- was called by Pope Innocent III to further attempt to restore a Christian presence in Jerusalem and unite the Eastern and Western Christian worlds
The crusading Germans, normans, and venetians decided to attack constantinople.
In 1204 they sacked the city, forced the Byzantine empire to flee and established a Latinate government that lasted until 1261.
Innocent III condemned the crusaders.
About eliminating trade competition rather than spreading Christianity
In 1212 the Children's crusade set off as a popular crusade not called for by the Pope
Led by STephen of CLoyes and Nicholas of Cologne, the crusade set off from northern france.
It is notable in that many of its participants were ultimately tricked into thinking they weer boarding ships to the Holy Lands and were instead sold into slavery
5th crusade- sometimes referred to the Albigensian Crusade
The Albigensians or Cathars were a breakaway group of Christians who advocated poverty and believed in a dualist world where good was represented by the spirit, and evil was represented by matter.
It was also a battle between strongly catholic northern french and southern french who tolerated the Cathars
Was a failure
6th crusade- resulted in a victory for the crusaders in that Jerusalem was regained by the Christian world. This had little to do with fighting and more with diplomacy \victory but not military rather economic
7th crusade- led by Louis IX of France against Muslims in Holy land and Egypt
Accomplished little to nothing
8th- launched by IX against the city of Tuins in North Africa.
Little was gained with Louis dying of dysentery near Carthage while waiting for reinforcements
9th- led by English Prince Edward I
Was the final crusade to the holy land, ut didn’t secure the Christian kingdom there
In 1291 after 9th crusade, the last christian stronghold in the holy land-Acre- fell to Turkish Mamluk forces with the population either being slaughtered or enslaved
This ended the crusades to holy land
However the crusaders allowed christians to regain any of the books saved by Islamoc occupation of places like ALexandira and thus the knowledge of ancient greek and roman civilizations returned after a thousand years
This set the stage for a rebirth of Greek and roman philosophy since math art and architecture
Rebirth is later known as the Renaissance
Trade flourished in the 14th century along the Great silk road. This made many people prosperous and kept economics and social structures steady in europe and asia
However trade would also lead to an unprecedented disaster in europe, which began around 1347 as ships from western asia began to reach european ports
The growth of trade also had its drawbacks, especially the Bubonic Plague which is a bacterial illness carried in the guts of fleas
These flees lived on mammals and once an animal came into contact with humans the fleas would bit the human spreading the disease
Plague was known as black death because of black lumps on the person. Killed 10-20 million people or 30-50% of population
The first major wave swept through europe beginning in 1347 lasted till 1350
Plague consisted of 2 forms- bubonic plague 50% mortality rate. Pneumonic plague- attacked the lungs, 99% fatal
Plague inspired waves of persecution that spread across Europe against jews.
Although the actions taken against european jews were taken because of religious reasons tended to be more economically based
Jews were widely accused of poisoning wells and spreading disease
Flagellants were religious movements who hoped to a[[ease an angry God by publicly beating themselves and singing Christian hymns.
They were a populist movement and threatened the authority of the church
Parading from town to town they likely helped spread the plague
The plague decreased the number of laborers in any given community and the value of labor increased
Peasants could ask for more money for their work
Traditional feudal system were peasants and serfs were tied to the land began to break down
Some peasants inherited dead relatives land holding and becoming wealthier
Land rents likewise decreased
Faith in the church was effected, as religion alone failed to stop the advanced of the plague
Church still remained powerful but many priests and monks died in the pandemic
Even the concept of death itself was changed amongst the people, who began to see death as a constant companion
The Renaissance
Humanistic revival of classical influence expressed in a flowering of the arts and literature and by the beginnings of modern science
Geography
Italy-crossroads of europe
Viencence-
Mediterranean sea
Holy land-
Why italy?
Trade– port of venice, port of genoa, east-west highway, north-south
urbanization– increased trade leads to: export of luxury goods, increased agricultural import
Fewer people needed in the fields greater urban pop
Venice florence milian are key cities
Ruins of rome people can devote time to studying the ruins of rome. A newfound interest in the classical period: republic of Athens and rome. Influenced by classical imports through constantinople and the arab world
The italians republic- unlike much of europe, the renaissance flourished in italian city-states that did not operate on a feudal structure
Doge in venice and genoa
Medici and Paazzi families in florence
Flowering of the arts
The renaissance in italy, particularly in florence was able to flourish as a result of the practice of patronage
Patronage– wealthy benefactors funding the creation of arts and the pursuit of the sciences
Artist-patron relationship:
Lorenzo de Medici and Leonardo de Vinci
Beginnings of modern science
Advancements in mathematics- geometry and algebra
Advancements in anatomy
Advancements in technology
Literature– Dante’s inferno, plato’s republic
Made possible through humanism:
The belief that humans, regardless of social standing, are capable of independent thought and action
Direct result of re-discovery of classical texts
Paired with new technologies, serves as the basis of challenging the catholic church and their societal supremacy
The printing press
Johannes Gutenburg
Allowed the spread of info across europe
Made books cheaper
Made possible the production of Bibles in vernacular
Military science
Battle of crecy and agincourt
The hundred years war
English victory because of their advanced longbows
Loss of the french nobility
Introduction of the cannon
Rise of Great Islamic Empires
The 3 major empires of Turkey, Persia, and INdia can be traced to a single Turkie empire ruled by Timmer (muslim emperor)
Was known as “Timmer Lenk” (the lame) bc of his wounds he suffered in battle as a young man.
In west known as Tammerlane
He became a master horseman, saw himself a successor to Gengis Khan
Timmur’s first enemies were feuding Mongol tribes in the certain asian Jagadai khanate. Timmur subdued most of them by 1360
In 1370 he chose to the city of samarkand the former Jagadai capital as his own and continued subduing the remains of the Jagadai Khanate
In 1380 Timmur began a campaign against persia and not only conquered it but Baghdad too
1395 attached territory of Khanate of Golden Horde and conquered them in only 18 months
In 1397 he attacked south into india destroying the Punjab region sacking Delhi
Many Indians were enslaved and forced to build Bibi-Khanym Mosque at Samarkand. Quality of slave labor was poor. It opened in 1404 and served for several 100 years but had heavily rebuilt by the soviets in the 20th century
Timur was aided in his conquests by good fortune, as his enemies tended to fight among themselves. He benefited from a period of favorable climate in central asia, allowing his calvary to grow to be very large
Known for his ferocity and brutality. His reputation was cemented by massacre of over 100,000 indians after his campaign there
The ottoman sultan Bayezid I was expanding his empire and planned for a final assault on the Byzantine capital constantinople.
Seljus were a Turkish sunni muslim empire that lasted from 1035-1194 in the Anatolian peninsula.
A weakened declining seljuk empire faced mongol invasion in 1260
One of the people initially welcomed by the seljuk were ppl led by Osman I
Under osman his people converted to sunni islam
Followers became known as the ottomans
The New ottoman empire was facing a declining byzantine empire who had resumed control of their capital in 1261
Constantinople had been surpassed by Italian city states of Genoa and Venice as the major entrepot.
In 1345 the ottoman sultan Orhan was invited by a faction of Byzantine peoples who sought the imperial throne. Weakened and chaotic following the 4th crusade Orhan accepted and never left
In 1487 Serbs and Bosnians revolted against the ottoman presence and in 1389 sultan murad defeated them at the Battle of Kosovo
MUrad was killed by a serb in kosovo in 1389 and was succeeded by the Bayezid who was conquered by Timur
The ottomans survived being conquered and by 1451 the ottomans were being ruled by Mehmed II later known as Muhmed the Conqueror
Mehmed's crowning glory was the conquest of constantinople on may 29, 1453
He then changes the name of the city of Istanbul and claimed the titles of roman emperor and ottoman padishah
Mehmed was shaken by the destruction he saw in constantinople and hoped to prevent wholesale looting and plunder, He added the byzantine empire to his own and hoped to use it as a base in order to spread islam to europe
Mehmet also practiced caesaropapism
Ottoman gov’t and society
Sultan was supported by 4 pillars of empire
The Grand Vezir, or chief minister to the Sultan
The judiciary (secular law)
The treasury
The Sultan’s administrators, who drew up his laws
Under caesaropapism the sultan wielded both ecumenical and secular powers
The sultan has to abide by the Shari’ah (islamic law) this was based on the Qur'an and the sayings of the first 4 caliphate
In very imp. Decisions he was to seek a fatwa or opinion form the highest muslim legal authority
In situations where islamic law of 7th century did not meet the demands of 15th century ottoman empire the Padishah could command the secular gov’t using state laws called kanun
These kanun could supersede religious laws if deemed necessary
The ottoman gov’t tended to be more sympathetic to their enemies, especially in the Balkan regions and they blended traditions in their gov
Ottoman landholding was unique in that all land in the empire belonged to the Sultan who then distributed it as a reward for service to the empire. This land could not be inherited or handed down, encouraging meritocracy over a landed aristocracy. This preserved the Padishah power.
The ottoman ruling class was composed entirely of slaves who belonged to the sultan. Most of these were Christians who had converted to Islam. These were promoted or demoted due to performance and merit.
Much like the ruling class, the Janissaries were a military unit composed of slaves who were former Christians converted to Islam. 10,000 strong, they are noteworthy for their skilled use of gunpowder weapons.
Ottoman social rank was extremely flexible and based solely on merit
There was little dignity connected to change in rank since all ottoman subjects were legally slaves of the Padishah and therefore bound to serve him however he pleased
This meritocratic approach and innate flexibility helps to explain how the multi-ethnic ottoman empire was able to last into the 20th century
Between Bayezid II and Selim I “The Grim” the ottoman territory expanded south and eastward including egypt
Suleiman the magnificent
Was the 10th ottoman sultan- imp. Bc number 10 was considered religiously significant
At 26, he succeeded his father Selim, and considered himself a unifier who would connect eastern and western cultures through islam
Western christian europe considered him a terrifying threat as he extended his power into hungry and threatened Vienna in 1529 and 1532 before concluding that it was too difficult to defeat
Although eh continued to play an imp role in european politics in terms of the protestant reformation, he turned his attentions eastward towards the Safvaid Persians
Seleimans reforms were imp. To the growth and continuation of the ottoman empire. Also known as “Suleiman the Lawgiver” he acknowledged that his multi-ethnic empire and that not all subjects would be subject to Shari’ah but that they would be subject to kanun
He lessened the penalties for many crimes replacing corporal punishment with fines
After his death in 1566 the empire remained strong for a time, but suffered financially as european nations began to find alternate trade routes that bypassed the ottoman ability ti tax goods from the east
The Safavid empire in persia originated after the mongol ravages had ended, costing the region about 90% of its pop.
A kurd named Safi Al-Din claimed a bloodline connection to the prophet muhammed through his cousin and fourth caliph Ali
He blended turkish Sufi mysticism and islam into a more devout and militant version of ISlam called Safavism
Ismail I, descendent of Safi Al-Din, was able to attack and conquer the city of Tabriz 1501, declaring himself shah, or king of persia. This term had not been used since the initial conquest of the region. He also named Shi’ite islam as the official language of PErsia
Ismail declaration of Shi'ism as a national religion led to a sense of unified identity in Persia, which had been less of a nation and more of a nondescript region following the Abbasid caliphate
This declaration raised alarm in the Sunni ottoman empire, since SUnni was Islamic majority and considered Shi’ism to be illegitimate
Shi’ites delt persecuted by SUnni dating back to the murder of Caliph Ali in 661
The 2 empires clashed in 1512 when Selim I became Sultan of the Ottoman empire. Ottoman succeeded in briefly capturing and holding Tabriz, but were unable to fully defeat Safavids
Later Ismail's successor Shah Tamasp moved his imperial capital eastward from Tabriz to Qarvizin resulting in less Turkish influence and more indigenous Persian cultures to form
Shah Abbas patterned his modern military force after the ottomans and even Baghadad
Carefully playing the designs of european cultures against one another, he allied with the British in 1622 to take Hormuz from the Portuguese and endorsed the manufacture of indigenous goods like tiles and rugs for export
Abbas faced a hostility that the neighboring ottoman empire held towards allowing the Safavids to trade with the West Caravan traffic was obstructed by the neighboring ottomans, denying the Safavids ability to sell their rugs and silks.
In response he moved his capital to the city of Isfahan
Abbas' death in 1629 marked the beginning of the decline of the Safavud empire. However, the empire preserved bc of its neighbors had already began to decline by that time
Women's roles in the great islamic empires of the Ottoman, Safavids and Mughals differed from each other and from women in europe.
The Qur’an guaranteed women rights such as property ownership and protection, protection from poverty incase of divorce
But as in the ottoman system, where kanun could supersede Shari'ah in the other muslim empires, local culture impacted women's rights
Safavid persia was more restrictive of female sphere of influence than others
All these societies were patriarchal but local customs and laws shaped the rights and abilities of all women in these societies
Women worshiped separately from men in thesis societies
Persian marriages were arranged by male relatives. Safavid women could be denied their property rights by their husbands, especially in cases of inheritance from previous husbands or relatives
Once married Persian women lived with their husbands and his families. This made them almost completely dependent and helped in case of divorce or the husband's death. Women would not buy or sell property themselves– this had to be done by man
Women were not allied to be educated outside of the home but inside middle and upper class homes they were taught the Guara and sayings of the prophet
Many women were secluded within the home, by this was more reflection of their status. Upper Class women did not work, and so their travel outside the home was considered unnecessary. WOrking class women were commonly seen on the streets with their faces uncovered
Ottoman women have more latitude in terms of conducting business, testifying in court, and executing their wills. Their rights as muslim followed the Quran more closely then in Persia and the privileges they helped exceeded
Unlike safavid persia, women in the Mughal empire were responsible for arranging the marriages of their daughters and were even able to fight in battle
Delhi sultanate and Muhgal empire
Mughal empire was preceded by Delhi sultanate: a muslim empire lasting from 1206-1526
Following the threat of Mongol invasion and growth of the empire into southern India, it ultimately facessd conquest by Timjur Lenk in the 1400s. n 1405 timur's son established the short lived Timurid dynasty
Babur only ruled for 4 years, leaving his son Humayun, who was an ineffective ruler
Humayun was later overthrown by one of Babur’s generals, Sher Khan Sur
Humayun resumed his rule of the empire, wasting time on horoscopes and indulging in opium. In 1535 after smoking too much he slipped and fell and died. Led to is 13 year old son to rule
Akbar suffered from seizures, had profound mood swings, and was illiterate. However he proved to be one of the greatest rulers in history.
mAs mughal emperor, he realized the need to win over the hindu majority. One way he did this was to marry a hindu princess
In 1563 he waived all taxes on Hindu’s making religious pilgrimage
The following year he abolished all tax on non muslims
He divided india into 12 providence and was careful to include Hindu’s among his governors, as well as the tax collectors, who were empowered to use tax revenue for humanitarian relief in times of poor harvest
Akbar was intent on courting the favor of majority hindu pop that he nearly lost support of muslims
He made farsi, the official language of gov’t and islamic law. Many indian muslims believed that the official language should be arabic
He tended to follow persian customs and he personally practiced a form of sufism. This made some muslims accuse him of being an apostate bc of his practice of sun worship, 4 times a day
He encouraged the arts including literature and poetry written
Akbar was generally successful in gathering the support of a very large diverse Indian population. By encouraging the support of the hindu majority and controlling rebellious muslim factions in the north, he was able to include many ethnic groups in gov’t
Inca 1438-1525
Inca developed large settlements such as Machu Picchu in the Andes
Inca civilization was marked by their lack of iron and steel, wheeled vehicles, and draft animals
They created a remarkable civilization that spanned almost the entire west coast of South america.
To gross the great and deep ravines, the inca built strong and sophisticated woven bridges that allowed them to travel across the mountain empire.
Inca discovered methods for freeze drying their foods for long term storage. The cold dry climate in the high Andes mountains aided in this process
In much the same way the inca preserved their dead as mummies
Quipu– used for permanently recording info/memory aids. Knots tired into cords
1517- Francisco Hernández de Cordoba explored the Yucatan and heard tales of the Aztec. Je relayed these stories to spanish authorities in Cuba
The Aztec empire ended abruptly with the arrival of the Spanish conquistador Hreenan Cortes in 1519. In 2 years he conquered the aztecs through military force and
Cortez was believed by the aztecs to be the incarnation of the god Quetzalcoatl returning from the east
Cortez and his men appeared alien to the aztecs, just as aztecs would have appeared otherworldly to the spanish
In 2 years he conquered the aztecs through military forces and disease and brought spanish rule their lands
Cortez was able to ally himself with several Aztec enemies promising to rid them of the aztecs
Late betrayed these allies
Eventually he was able to capture Aztec king Moctezuma II and held him as a hostage to pressure Aztecs to comply with the spanish
Moctezuma died in spanish custody in 1520 after being hit by stones thrown at him by his own people, as they considered him a traitor for obeying spanish
In 1512 spanish conquistador Fransico Pizaero entered the land of the inca and captured its last king, Atahualpa
Pizaro demanded a ransom be paid by the Inca– and that a room measuring 5 meters by 7 meters be filled with gold, silver, and other treasures
If it were done, Pizarro promised to release King Atahualpa
Even though it was done in 1533 Atahualpa was given a mock trial in which he was condemned
He was executed in 1533 and the Inca empire and already in decline after suffering many european diseases such as smallpox, came under spanish control
Time of Exploration
The indian ocean in the 15th century
The chinese Admiral Zheng He– led 7 expeditions from 1405-1433
Was a muslim which helped with diplomacy when he reached India, Arabia, and Eastern Africa
He commanded a fleet of large ships, called “junks” these included “treasure ships” that carried trade goods to the rulers he visited
Junks were armed and could fight if needed. Carried large numbers of soldiers
Brought numerous peoples into Ming Dynasty’s sphere of influence
What happened to Zheng and his fleet?
Internal political dissatisfaction with ming emperor Youngle
Fear of outside influence disrupting society
Increasing attacks by pirates along china’s eastern coast
No need for conquest– peaceful trade existed for desirable goods
Portugal
On the western coast of indian peninsula
Its soil is relatively poor, not lending itself to agriculture
Portuguese fishermen had long since turned to the sea and had become accustomed to sailing considerable distances from shore
During these expeditions islands had been discovered
While efforts to unite various christian kingdoms to east continued, portugal by 1400 was a politically stable country
Portugal also manifested a strong desire to continue fighting the muslim presence in the mediterranean region and to support the crusades: Prince Henry “the navigator”
3rd son of king john I of portugal
Noted as a monk, scholar, and knight
Governor of the “order of christ” a military religious order of knights and successors to the crusading “knights templar”
Despite his name he rarely left portugal
He 1st gains his fame in 1415 on a raid of the Moorish pirate base of Ceuta
The raid on Ceuta was primarily an opportunity for young knights to prove themselves– the raid resulted in an intelligence coup: a large number of maps showing Muslim trade routes through North Africa and Mediterranean region
The maritime school at Sagres, create dby henry, was an academy for navigation and naval officers, as well as a research and design center for maritime development
He secured regular contact between prodigal and madeira, and the Azores, thereby maintaining them as badly-needed agricultural land, as well as bases for further explorations
His legacy
His academy trained the next generations of portuguese officers
Oversaw the collection and compilation of navigational info from sailors to create more comprehensive maps
Academy also further developed the use of technologies
Oceans are dangerous
Unexpected storms, poorly handled ships, bad navigation, mutinous crews, spoiled or insufficient provisions can lead to disaster
On 15th and 16th centuries, ships could simply vanish without a trace
If the dangers were substantial, then so were the benefits
Gold (wealth)-- this scold come as a share in a successful voyage, or as a later appointment as a colonial administrator or trader
God– spread of christianity was paramount asd a means to drive back islam, could also be used as a tool upon converted populations to gain access to material wealth
Glory– personal and national. Aka fame, fame could mean money
Disaster for the christian world: 1453 and the fall of constantinople
Fall of constantinople and byzantine empire caused disruption of overland trade from asia to europe
Portugal had been steadily extending its influence southward down the west coast of africa, to cape verde, the gold coast, and the slave coast
Consequences of successive voyages south:
Discovery and acquisition of gold
Enters african slave trade
Fruitless search for “prester john”
Silk road to sea legs
Constantinople's fall acted as an economic incentive for portugal to find a way around Africa to reach India and he Spice islands
1488– Bartolomeu Dias became the first european captain to round the tip of africa and sail into the indian ocean
1497-98– Vasco de Gama reached the Malabar coast in India
1505-35– Portuguese campaigned to dominate the Indian ocean by force
Spain's push westward
In 1470 Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of Aragon, unifying the 2 kingdoms creating Spain
The reconquista was the result of the latter crusades and the unification of the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. As a result the entire Iberian peninsula were under catholic control
However it also meant that spain was practically bankrupt as the war to take spain from the Moors was expensive
1492 Moorish forces surrendered to Ferdinanad at Granada, the last Muslim outpost on the Iberian peninsula. This ended the Reconquista
Cristoforo Colombo- (christopher columbus) Italian sailor and participant in previous Portuguese expeditions- petitioned Isabella and Ferdinand for support in his quest to find a shorter route to the spice and silk trade
Despite his nautical expertise, Columbus completely underestimated the Earth’s size and thus missed india and the spice islands
Eventually, his mistake leads to Spain's transformation from one of the poorest countries in Europe to one of the wealthiest
Columbus' arrival in the new world also begins a process known as columbian exchange
This refers to the transfer of plants, animals, disease, ideas, and technologies between old and new worlds
Potential for trouble:
Both portugal and spain looked to conquer and control large amounts of previously unknown territory
Both were catholic countries and felt bound by the judgment of the pope
In 1494 Pope ALexander VI issued a papal decree that divided the Earth between the 2 countries so they may avoid direct conflict
Treaty of Tordesillas– 1494
The unclaimed territories of the world were divided between spain and portugal
1519 Ferdinand Megellan- A portuguese mariner sailing inSpanish service, set out westward to circumnavigate the globe. Magellan was killed in 1521 by the Philippines but the remainder of his crew returned to spain in 1522
Different countries had different motives for exploration
The search of wealth, continuation of the crusades, as well as individual and national recognition motivated western mariners
The columbian exchange began with the arrival of european in the americas and involved the introduction of previously unknown animal and plant species to both old and new worlds
Early european colonization of the americas
1453- constantinople falls, kick starts european exploration in north america
1492- reconquista ends
1517- protestant reformation
Viking voyages to the americas date back to the 10th century, their settlements weren’t permanent
Ocean travel was dangerous but they too believed the motives outway risks: God, gold, glory
Perhaps, the first attempt to establish permanent european settlement in the americas was La Isabela on the northern coast of the caribbean island Hispaniola
Was founded by christopher columbus for spanish on his second voyage to the americas
Hispaniola and other caribbean islands were important sites for sugar production
Sugar, imported from the old world, was grown and processed on the islands
Led to the importation of African slaves in high numbers
Around 1497, Portuguese mariners detected evidence of a large land mass which would eventually was recognized as south america
Following the 1494 treaty of Tordesillas, the eastern part of south america was granted to portugal
By early 1500s portugal went on expeditions along coast
In 1532 they established the colony of Sao Vincente developing plantation agriculture for sugar
During the early parts of their existence, caribbean and brazilian sugar colonies attempted to use indigenous ppl for slave labor
The harsh treatment of the people by the portuguese and spanish coupled with disease and relative ease of escape meant they were not suitable
Led to great expansion of african slaves transported from west coast of africa
Treaty of tordesillas was intended to separate portugal and spanish claims. Despite europe being catholic most other nations ignored the papal decree and set out to stake claims in the new world for themselves. Most notable was France
Early French interests in North America centered on fishing for cod. Led to fishing colonies in Labrador, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia
These finishing colonies pursued the schools of cod, caught them, salted them, and brought them back to france
Later contact with indigenous peoples opened up the trade for desirable animal furs
Jacques Cartier was french explorer who pressed further into the north american continent
Travelling up the Saint lawrence river, made it to the Lachie rapids on his second voyage of modern montreal
5 years later the first permanent french settlement was established
North American colonization began with Spain and France. Both Catholic nations, they tended to stay out of each other's way as france was more interested in fishing and trade with natives, spain was more concerned with sugar and riches
The most notable conflict was when french settlement at Fort Caroline at modern Jacksonville was overrun and destroyed by Spanish who were established at st. augustine
Following protestant reformation 2 other countries began to establish north american colonies: british and dutch
Both protestant nations had diff motives for colonization/settling. The Dutch wanted to trade with natives. British wanted to establish their own agricultural plantations, exploit timber for maritime use, and hoped to uncover valuable mineral assets
First successful british colony was Jamestown in 1607, they introduced natives the concept of land ownership– began culture conflicts
Relationship between british, french and indigenous peoples was shaped by their purpose:
French were more tolerable by natives because they came to fish and trade, and natives desired french manufactured goods. Trading posts tended to be small and beneficial to native ppl.
British interest in agricultural plantation meant that traditional native practices like hunting on open land was forbidden. Demand for labor led some to attempt to enslave indigenous people.
Indigenous ppl did not make productive slaves as many were able to escape easily into the back country while others willed themselves to die
Indentured servitude was unable to keep up with labor demand, so the first african slaves were introduced to NA in 1619
English privateers preyed freely on the spanish main and portuguese ships as well, offering lucrative opportunities for british who has won their battle against the spanish armada in 1588 4 years after the establishment of the failed colony of roanoke
Catholic church taught salvation through sacraments
If you didn't believe in catholic church you were a heretic and could be imprisoned excommunicated and burned at the stake
Problems in the church
indulgences= forgiveness of sins
Church began selling indulgences for money allowing people to buy forgiveness for their sins
Church conducted services and had the Bible in Latin which most ppl could not read or write
Indulgences were a papally sanctioned forgiveness for a sin committed or had yet to commit
Church was largest land owner
simony=selling of church office (practiced by church)
John Wyclif was a theology professor at Oxford University– he argued that the church was too worldly and the church should practice poverty to remain pure and holy.
Believed the real truth in Christianity came from the Bible not the church.
Followers were known as Lollards and were widely persecuted by the church for beliefs
Jan Hus– in 1415 the rector (religious instructor) of Prague University in Bohemia was summoned to a church meeting to discuss his opinion
Although promised safety he was arrested convicted of heresy and burned at the stake
Martin Luther– on oct 31, 1517 a german mon, he nailed the 95 theses to the door of the All Saints church in Germany
95 theses criticized the power of the church and the authority of the pope and sparked a religious schism within the church
Beginning of the protestant reformation
Luther's radical ideas that offended the catholic church
Preaching services and writing the Bible in vernacular instead of Latin
Salvation through grace not by indulgences
“Worldliness” of rome and their obsession with material wealth went against scripture
Church was not necessary for faith and salvation- a believer should be able to look straight at the Bible
Protestantism spread rapidly through europe challenging the powers of the catholic church
Beginning in germany philosophies spread by the newly-developed printing press
Henry VIII was a big break between catholic and protestant christianity– he broke with the catholic church in 1534 after a series of conflicts over wanting a divorce with his wife, Catherine of Aragon, a spanish princess
Pope Clement VII refused to annul the marriage, Henry had the parliament pass Act of Supremacy in 1534 and declared himself head of his own church Church of England
Church of england answered to the king not the pope
Led to the wars between protestant england and catholic portugal, spain, and france
Following henry's death in 1547 the throne was assumed by his only son Edward VI
He furthered his fathers break from catholic church but died at 15 yrs old
Henry's eldest daughter Mary I became the first female ruler of england. She devoted her attention to forcibly returning england to catholicism
When she dies in 1558 she was succeeded by her younger sister ELizabeth I, who would rule until her death in 1603
Elizabth furthered the protestant cause in england
She ordered execution of her catholic cousin Mary, Queen of Scots in 1587 because of growing french presence in scotland and perceived threats to her throne
Mary's execution caused philip II of spain to realized that england would no return to catholicism without force
He arranged for a massive armada of 130 ships to sail against england where it would join an assault force sailing from SPanish holland and invade england
Battle of gravelines– armada was severely defeated
Major blow to spanish prestige and massive victory of england who would soon begin establishing permanent colonies in north america
Protestantism opened the door to new interpretations of christian philosophy
One philosopher John Calvin argued that God had already decided the history of man and unlike catholic teachings that God had chosen who would be saved before they were born
Predestination– those saved= elect
Followers practiced a simple plain form of christianity and felt they practiced pure form of christianity known as puritans
Catholic counter reformation sought to cement catholic authority over the christian world
Part of this came through the council of trent
Counter reformation also took violent turns the SPanish Inquisition began in 1478 to root out jews and mus;lims who had falsely converted to christianity
Roman inquisition began as means to force catholic control over society
Under authority of the holy office
Battle between catholic and protestant churchs extended well into the holy roman empire
In 1608 calvinasts
30 years war=religious civil war
Begun by defenestration of prague
Started in bohemian and threw a catholic guy out the window
Holy roman emperor saw it as an opportunity to persecute protestant