August 28th Notes Psych101

Psychology is a science: questions should be answered using the Scientific Method, not beliefs, hearsay, rumors, or unverified expert opinions.
The Scientific Method is a step-by-step process of observing, measuring, and testing ideas to explain what happens, when it happens, what causes it, and why.
It involves interaction between theories, hypotheses, and research methods (theory
hypothesis
method
data
theory refinement).
Topic focus: PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH.

When conducting research, ethics must be considered and reviewed.
Institutional Review Board (IRB): a group responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure it meets accepted standards of science and protects the well-being of research participants.

Privacy: Researchers must respect participants' privacy.
Confidentiality: Participants' information must be kept secret.
Informed Consent: People must be told about the research and can choose to participate.
Deception: Deception can be used if necessary, but must be revealed at the end of the study.
Risks: Researchers cannot ask participants to endure unreasonable pain or discomfort.

An explanation of how some mental process or behavior occurs.
Researchers explain prior findings and make predictions about future events.
Start with literature review.
Step 1: Formulate a Theory- Make a specific, testable prediction about what should be observed if the theory is accurate.
Step 2: Develop a Hypothesis- Choose the appropriate research method: Experimental, Correlational, or Descriptive.
The most appropriate method depends on the goal.
Step 3: Test the Hypothesis- Determine if the hypothesis was supported.
Use descriptive statistics with raw data.
Use inferential statistics to determine true differences in results.
Step 4: Analyze the Data- Report results and embark on further inquiry. Replicate.
Step 5: Share the Results

Descriptive methods: Describe what is occurring.
Example: What study techniques do students believe are best?
Correlational methods: Test the relationship between variables.
Example: What is the relationship between how much time students spend using certain study methods and their later exam scores?
Case studies: In-depth investigation of one person or a few people or an organization.
Observational studies: Researchers watch what participants do in a natural environment or laboratory.
Self-reports: Use surveys, questionnaires, or interviews to gather information directly from participants.
Experimental methods: Investigate what causes an outcome.
Example: Which study technique results in the best exam scores?

Goal: describe beliefs or behavior.
Especially valuable in early stages of research when trying to determine whether a particular phenomenon exists.

Intensive examination of just one person or a few people (e.g., people with brain injuries).
Drawback: cannot generalize that the same outcome will occur with other people.

Accessing and coding behavior across specific time intervals.
Coding: deciding which predefined category an observed behavior fits into.
Drawbacks: Observer Bias; Hawthorne Effect (presence of observer may alter behavior).

Good for gathering data from a large number of people in a short time.
Drawbacks: self-report bias; may not recall information accurately; may not reveal personal information that casts them in a negative light.

Example 1: Planetary distance (AU) vs Asthma prevalence in American children
Data: The average distance between Uranus and Earth measured on the first day of each month; percent of children in the US with asthma (2003–2019).
Reported statistics: $$r = 0.932, \, r^2 = 0.869, \, p ### Notes on Interpretation
You may be tempted to disregard correlational studies, but they help identify whether any relationship exists and guide further experimental work.
In correlational research, the variables are not under the researcher’s control.
Example in notes: Strong relationship between depression and suicide (correlation does not imply causation).

Experimental methods test a hypothesis by changing one thing and seeing what happens to another.
Independent Variable (IV): This is the thing the experimenter changes or controls. It's the 'cause' the experimenter is testing.
Dependent Variable (DV): This is the thing that is measured or observed, which might change because of the IV. It's the 'effect' the experimenter is looking for.
Operational Definition: a detailed description of the variables.
Example: Hot weather and crime (explaining what "hot weather" and "crime" mean in a specific way for the study).

Example A: Office color and worker productivity
- IV: The color of the office (e.g., yellow vs blue)
- this is what the experimenter would change.
- DV: Worker productivity
- this is what the experimenter would measure to see if the color had an effect.
Example B: Listening to music and running performance
- IV: The tempo of music (fast-paced vs slow-paced)
- this is what the experimenter changes.
- DV: Running performance during a marathon
- this is what the experimenter measures.

Control group: Receives no intervention or an intervention unrelated to the IV.
Experimental group: Experiences the manipulation/IV.
Rationale: To determine causality, a comparison between a baseline/control condition and the manipulated condition is essential.

A confound is anything that affects the DV and may unintentionally vary between experimental conditions.
Confounds threaten internal validity by offering alternative explanations for observed effects.

Random Assignment: Each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to control or experimental groups.
Purpose: Averages out preexisting differences between participants, increasing internal validity.

Population: The group you want to know about.
Sample: A subset of the population studied to learn about the population.
Random Sampling: Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate.
Purpose: To ensure the sample is representative of the population.

Population
Random Sample
Random Assignment
Random sample selects participants from the population.
Random assignment places those participants into Control or Experimental groups.
Control vs Experimental groups: based on random assignment, not pre-existing differences.

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Note: This image does not convey substantive methodological content; focus remains on the methodological concepts above.