SAT Writing: Standard English Conventions and Sentence Structure Notes

Course Overview and Logistics

• Exam Structure: The first test on the $10\text{th}$ will be a real SAT that covers all topics. The material is not cumulative; even if a specific topic hasn't been covered in length during the prior two weeks, the exam will address the full range of reading and writing material.
• Study Resources: Full exams serve as primary study material for future preparation.
• Standard English Conventions Domain: This domain focuses on grammar. Performance in this area is reported using bars in the actual SAT score report.
• Lecture Importance: The first two lectures on sentence structure and punctuation are estimated to cover approximately $90\%$ of all grammar questions on the SAT.

Understanding Sentence Structure: Clauses

• Independent Clause: An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and can function as a full sentence. It expresses a complete thought. It is defined by the ability to place a period ($.$) after it.
  • Examples: "I eat," or "The Knicks won the championship."
• Dependent Clause: A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought. It cannot function as a standalone sentence.
• Dependent Marker Words (Subordinating Conjunctions): These words, when added to the beginning of an independent clause, turn it into a dependent clause.
  • Common Marker Words: After, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether, and while.
  • Example Transformation: "I eat" (Independent) → "Because I eat" (Dependent).

Rules for Connecting Clauses

• Connecting Two Independent Clauses (Compound Sentences): There are two primary methods to combine two full sentences into one correctly.

  1. Comma ($,$) + Coordinating Conjunction (FANBOYS):
     • F (For): Used to mean "because."
     • A (And): Used for general continuation or adding related information.
     • N (Nor): Used for neither/nor scenarios, picking none of the options.
     • B (But): Used for contrast.
     • O (Or): Used for mutually exclusive choices.
     • Y (Yet): Used for contrast.
     • S (So): Used for cause and effect.
  2. Semicolon ($;$): The semicolon is strong enough to separate two full sentences without additional conjunctions.

• Connecting Independent and Dependent Clauses (Complex Sentences): Punctuation rules depend on the order of the clauses.

  • Rule (Order: Independent first, Dependent second): Punctuation is generally optional. The dependent clause is simply attached after the independent clause (e.g., "Napoleon didn't consult with his officers before he decided to invade Russia.")
  • Rule (Order: Dependent first, Independent second): A comma must be placed after the dependent clause (e.g., "Before he decided to invade Russia, Napoleon didn't consult with his officers.")

Common Sentence Structure Errors

• Comma Splice: This occurs when two independent clauses are joined improperly by only a comma without a coordinating conjunction. This is an extremely common error on the SAT and should be eliminated immediately during the answer choice selection process.
• Run-On Sentences: These occur when two or more independent clauses are joined without appropriate punctuation or conjunctions.
• Double Verbs: This occurs when a sentence has one subject but two verbs that are improperly connected, creating a run-on effect.
• Fragments: A fragment is a sentence missing a subject, a verb, or a complete thought.
  • Basic Fragment: Missing a subject or verb.
  • Complex/Compound Fragment: Occurs when both a dependent marker word (like "although") and a coordinating conjunction (like "but") are used in the same sentence structure improperly.

Advanced Grammatical Correction: Participles

• Participles: Words that look like verbs but function differently, typically ending in $-ing$ (present participle) or $-ed$ (past participle).
• Correcting Comma Splices with Participial Phrases: If two independent clauses share the same subject, the second clause can be turned into a participial phrase to improve fluidity and fix the run-on error.
  • Process: Remove the subject of the second clause and change its main verb to the $-ing$ form.
  • Example Correction: "America elected Trump in $2016$. America proved it is a joke of a country." → "America elected Trump in $2016$, proving it is a joke of a country."
  • Scientific Example: "Steam quickly condenses during an underwater eruption, leaving only $CO_2$ bubbles and droplets of molten sulfur."

Conjunctive Adverbs and Punctuation Placement

• Definitions: Conjunctive adverbs include "however," "nevertheless," "moreover," "therefore," "consequently," and "furthermore."
• The Trap: These words are often mistaken for FANBOYS. You cannot join two independent clauses with only a comma and a conjunctive adverb ($S_1, \, \text{however}, \, S_2$ is a comma splice).
• Placement for Contrast: The position of words like "however" determines which ideas are being contrasted.
  • Case A ($S_1; \, \text{however}, \, S_2$): The contrast is between Sentence $1$ and Sentence $2$.
  • Case B ($S_1, \, \text{however}; \, S_2$): The adverb "however" modifies the first sentence, contrasting it with a prior context, and the semicolon starts a new, related idea.

Strategic Reading: Identifying Sentence Core

• Strategy: Cross Out Extraneous Information: For wordy SAT questions, physically cross out definitions, phrases between commas, or information between dashes to reveal the underlying structure.
• Example Analysis (Economic Context): "Economists assert that whenever a currency loses value during inflation [definition of inflation], the value of tangible assets [like property] may actually increase."
  • The Trap: Avoid adding a second conjunction (like "so") when the sentence already began with a dependent marker (like "whenever").

Questions & Discussion

Q: What word can I add to "I eat" to make it a dependent clause?Angela: Like, let's say I eat. What word am I gonna add? Jolynn: Food? (No, that's an object). Ariana: "Because I eat." Instructor: Correct. "Because," "when," "since," or "although" are dependent marker words.

Q: What are the two ways to combine two independent clauses?Tiff: Comma and FANBOYS? And a semicolon? Instructor: Very good. Comma + FANBOYS or a semicolon.

Q: What does the FANBOY "for" mean?Nikki: It means "because."

Q: Which sentence is correct regarding "however" placement?Case 1: The team was not always a title contender; however, the team last reached the finals in '$99$. (Incorrect contrast). Case 2: The team was not always a title contender, however; the team last reached the finals in '$99$. (Correct contrast, linking "however" to the previous claim that the Knicks won the championship this year). Ariana: The second one. Instructor: Correct. The however contrasts the current success with the past struggle.

Q: How do you fix a double verb error like "The dog ate my food is so cute"?Lawrence: Turn it into a participle. "The dog eating my food." Instructor: Yes, changing "ate" to "eating" removes the second verb, making the sentence function.

Q: Does "which" act as a dependent marker word?Instructor: No, it creates a relative clause, which is not a full sentence, making the phrase it introduces dependent.

Anecdote: Baby Jay and the 99th Percentile

• The instructor mentions his "baby," referred to as Baby Jay, noting he is a "$99\text{th percentile baby}$."
• In pediatric terms, this reflects measurements of height, weight, and head circumference.
• The instructor jokingly encourages supporting the baby, predicting he will be in the NBA one day.