Unit 1-3
introspection
first began in laboratory set up by Wilhelm Wundt; process of reporting on one's own conscious mental experiences
structuralism
idea proposed by Wundt that the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and objective sensations; aimed to uncover the basic structures that make up mind and thought
functionalism
theory presented by William James; emphasizes adaptiveness of the mental or behavioral processes
Wilhelm Wundt
set up first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879; known for training subjects in introspection and for his theory of structuralism
Margaret Floy Washburn
first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology
William James
published The Principles of Psychology, the science's first textbook; responsible for theory of functionalism
Mary Whiton Calkins
studied with William James and went on to become president of the American Psychological Association
G. Stanley Hall
student of William James who pioneered he study of child development and was the first president of the APA
Gestalt psychology
theory that states that the whole experience is often more than just the sum of the parts, because the way we experience the world is more than just an accumulation of various perceptual experiences; relatively little influence on current psychology
Max Wertheimer
Gestalt psychologist who argued against dividing human thought and behavior into discrete structures
psychoanalysis
theory that states a part of our mind over which we do not have conscious control determines, in part, how we think and behave
Sigmund Freud
revolutionized psychology with his psychoanalytic theory; believed the unconscious mind must be examined through dream analysis, word association, and other psychoanalytic therapy techniques; criticized for being unscientific and creating unverifiable theories
behaviorism
theory that states psychologists should look at only behavior and causes of behavior, and not concern themselves with describing elements of consciousness; dominant school of thought in psychology from the 1920s through the 1960s
John Watson
psychologist who believed the science must limit itself to observable phenomena; wanted to establish behaviorism as the dominant paradigm of psychology
B. F. Skinner
behaviorist who expanded the basic ideas of behaviorism to include the idea of reinforcement- environmental stimuli that either encourage or discourage certain responses
humanism
modern psychological viewpoint that stresses individual choice and free will; suggests that we choose most of our behaviors and these choices are guided by physiological, emotional or spiritual needs; not easily tested by the scientific method; includes theorists Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
biopsychology
modern psychological perspective that explains human thought and behavior strictly in terms of biological processes (e.g. genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters)
evolutionary perspective
also known as Darwinian; modern psychological perspective that examines human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection; similar to biopsychology
behavioral perspective
modern psychological perspective that explains human thought and behavior in terms of conditioning; looks strictly at observable behaviors and what reaction organisms get in response to specific behaviors
cognitive perspective
modern psychological perspective that examines human thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events
sociocultural perspective
modern psychological perspective that looks at how our thoughts and behaviors vary from people living in other cultures; emphasizes the influence of culture on the way we think and act
Jean Piaget
came up with a cognitive developmental theory, which focuses on how our cognitions develop in stages as we mature
developmental perspective
modern psychological perspective emphasizing that change occurs across a lifespan; focus has shifted over recent years to teens and adults
trait view
modern psychological perspective that views behavior and personality as the products of enduring psychological characteristics
basic research
explores questions that are of interest to psychologists but are not intended to have immediate, real-world applications; also referred to as experimental psychology
operational definitions
a researcher's explanation how the variable of an experiment will be measured
valid
research that measures what the researcher set out to measure; accurate
reliable
research that can be replicated and is consistent
participants
individuals on which research is conducted
sampling
the process by which participants for research are selected
population
includes anyone or anything that could possibly be selected to be in the sample for research
random selection
every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as a participant in research
stratified sampling
process that allows a researcher to ensure that the sample represents the population on some criteria
laboratory experiments
experiments conducted in a lab, a highly controlled environment; advantage of being easily controlled
field experiments
experiments conducted in the world; advantage of being more realistic
confounding variables
any difference between the experimental and control conditions, except for the independent variable, that might affect the dependent variable
assignment
the process by which participants are put into a group, experimental control
random assignment
each participant has an equal chance of being placed into any group
participant-relevant confounding variables
when groups are not randomly assigned during an experiment; increases the chance of participants in the two groups differ in any meaningful way
group matching
used if one wants to ensure that the experimental and control groups are equivalent on some criterion (e.g. sex, IQ scores, or age)
situation-relevant confounding variables
when the situations into which the different groups of an experiment are put are not truly equivalent; can create invalid experiment results due to the situation rather than the independent variable
experimenter bias
the unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis
double-blind procedure
when neither the participants nor the researcher are able to affect the outcome of the research
demand characteristics
cues about the purpose of the study; participants use such cues to try to respond appropriately, skewing the validity of the experiment
response bias
the tendency for subjects to behave in certain ways; can alter validity of experiment
social desirability
the tendency of participants to try to give answers that reflect well upon them
pseudopsychology
erroneous assertions or practices set forth as being scientific psychology
confirmation bias
the tendency to attend to evidence that complements and confirms our beliefs or expectations, while ignoring evidence that does not
Plato
ancient Greek philosopher who studied areas like cognition; was first philosopher credited with the study of gaining knowledge
Aristotle
ancient Greek philosopher who developed theories of sensation, perception, cognition, memory, problems olving, and ethics
René Descartes
17th century French philosopher who asserted that human sensations and behaviors are based on activity in the nervous system
Wolfgang Kohler
Gestalt psychologist who studied insight learning, an overlooked form of learning marked by sudden "Aha!" experiences
neuroscience
field devoted to understanding how the brain creates thoughts, feelings, motives, consciousness, memories and other mental processes
cognitions
mental processes, such as thinking, memory, sensation, and perception
cognitive neuroscience
an interdisciplinary field emphasizing brain activity as information processing; involves cognitive psychology, neurology, biology, computer science, linguistics, and specialists from other fields who are interested in the connection between mental processes and the brain
psychodynamic psychology
modern clinical viewpoint emphasizing the understanding of mental disorders in terms of unconscious needs, desires, memories, and conflicts
clinical view
psychological perspective emphasizing mental health and mental illness; psychodynamic and humanistic psychology are variations of this
empirical investigation
an approach to research that relies on sensory experience and observation as research data
scientific method
developing a hypothesis, performing a controlled test, gathering objective data, analyzing results, and publishing, criticizing, and replicating the results
random presentation
process by which chance alone determines the order in which the stimulus is presented in an experiment
ex post facto
non-experimental method; research in which subjects are chosen based on a pre-existing condition
correlational studies
non-experimental method; a type of research that is mainly statistical in nature; determines the relationship between two variables
survey
non-experimental method; a quasi-experimental method in which questions are asked to subjects; when being designed, the researcher hast o be careful that the questions are not skewed or biased towards a particular answer
naturalistic observation
non-experimental method; research in which subjects are observed in their natural environment
longitudinal study
non-experimental method; a type of study in which one group of subjects is followed and observed (or examined, surveyed, etc.) for an extended period of time (years.)
cross-sectional study
a study in which a representative cross section of the population is tested or surveyed at one specific time
cohort-sequential study
a research method in which a cross section of the population is chosen and then each cohort is followed for a short period of time
frequency distribution
a summary chart, showing how frequently each of the various scores in a set of data occurs
histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution; the height of the bars indicates the frequency of the group of scores
descriptive statistics
statistical procedures used to describe characteristics and responses of groups of subjects
measure of variability
how closely scores bunch up around the central point; a statistic that indicates the spread of distribution
measures of central tendency
averages; mean, median, and mode
hindsight bias
people's tendency upon hearing about research findings to think that they knew it all along
applied research
research conducted in order to solve practical problems
standard deviation
a measure of variability that indicates the average difference between the sources and their mean
normal distribution
a bell-shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population
correlation coefficient
a number between -1 and +1 expressing the degree of relationship between two variables
inferential statistics
statistical techniques (based on probability theory) used to assess whether the results of a study are reliable or whether they might be simply the result of chance; often used to determine whether two or more groups are essentially the same or different
representative sample
a sample obtained in such a way that it reflects the distribution of important variables in the larger population in which the researchers are interested; variables such as age, income level, ethnicity, and geographic distribution
Neuron
A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
Afferent (sensory) neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
Efferent (motor) neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.
Interneurons
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
Dendrite
The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward toward the cell body.
Soma (cell body)
Cell body where the nucleus of the neuron is located.
Axon
The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
Mylein sheath
A layer of fatty tissue encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
Glial cells
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.
Synapse
The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
Reuptake
A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
Resting potential
When a neuron is completely polarized and not active.
Action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon (depolarizes the neuron as it travels through).
Threshold
The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
All-or-none principle
Neurons will only fire at full power, either all the way or not at all.
Polarization
All sodium ions are on the outside of the neuron and all potassium ions are on the inside.
Depolarization
Occurs when action potential travels down the axon, causing the sodium ions to rush in (a mixing of different ions)
Refractory period
A neuron's resting period after firing, when it recharges and can not fire again until recharged.
Endorphins
"Morphine within," natural, opiatelike neurotransmitter linked to pain control and to pleasure. Gives a "runner's high" feeling, released when injured or in pain.
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. Some stimulant substances mimic its effects. Too much is linked to schizophrenia, too little is linked to Parkinson's disease.
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. An undersupply is linked to depression.
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning and memory. With Alzherimer's disease, Ach-producing neurons deteriorate. Blocking of it causes paralyses.
Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal. An undersupply can cause a depressed mood.
GABA
A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply is linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.
Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in memory.
Agonist
Foreign substance that mimics certain neurotransmitters, having similar effects.
Antagonist
Foreign substance that blocks certain neurotransmitters, not allowing them to do their job.
Nervous System
The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
Central Nervous System
The brain and the spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body.
Somatic Nervous System
The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles.
Autonomic Nervous System
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).
Sympathetic Nervous System
The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations; prepares the body for fight or flight response.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
Reflex
A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.
Endocrine System
The body's "slow"chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones in the bloodstream.
Hormones
Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.
Pituitary gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. It regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
Lesion
Naturally or experimentally caused destruction tissue.
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
CT Scan
A series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body.
PET
A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.
MRI
A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue; shows brain anatomy.
FMRI (functional MRI)
A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans; show brain function.
Brainstem
The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions.
Medulla
The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
Reticular formation
A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.
Pons
Part of the brainstem that influences sleep, dreaming, and respiration.
Thalamus
The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
Cerebellum
The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
Limbic system
Doughnut-shaped neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.
Amygdala
Two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion (specifically levels of aggression and fear).
Hippocampus
A neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.
Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature, sex drive), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
Cerebral cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
Corpus callosum
The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
Frontal lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. Also involved in personality.
Motor cortex
An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
Parietal lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.
Somatosensory cortex
Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
Occipital lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.
Primary Visual cortex
Area at the back of the occipital lobes that process visual information.
Temporal lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory ares, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.
Association areas
Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.
Aphasia
Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).
Broca's Area
Controls language expression - an area in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
Wernicke's area
Controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; in the left temporal lobe.
Plasticity
The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
Nerves
bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
environment
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
Chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
DNA
A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.
Genes
DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission.
Genome
All the genetic information in an organism; all of an organism's chromosomes.
identical (monozygotic) twins
twins that originate from the same zygote
fraternal twins (dizygotic twins)
Twins who develop from separate eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but they share a fetal environment
Heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes.
Epigenetics
The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
natural selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.
Mutation
A change in a gene or chromosome.
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
night terrors
sleep disruptions that occur during Stage 3 of sleep, involving screaming, panic, or confusion
Dreams
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
wish fulfillment
Freudian belief that many dreams express unconscious desires
manifest content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream
latent content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream
physiological function theory
regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways
neural activation theory
REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories
information processing theory
dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories
actor-observer bias
phenomenon of explaining other people’s behaviors are due to internal factors and our own behaviors are due to situational forces
ageism
prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their age
aggression
seeking to cause harm or pain to another person
altruism
humans’ desire to help others even if the costs outweigh the benefits of helping
Asch effect
group majority influences an individual’s judgment, even when that judgment is inaccurate
attitude
evaluations of or feelings toward a person, idea, or object that are typically positive or negative
attribution
explanation for the behavior of other people
bullying
a person, often an adolescent, being treated negatively repeatedly and over time
bystander effect
situation in which a witness or bystander does not volunteer to help a victim or person in distress
central route persuasion
logic-driven arguments using data and facts to convince people of an argument’s worthiness
cognitive dissonance
psychological discomfort that arises from a conflict in a person’s behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs that runs counter to one’s positive self-perception
collectivist culture
culture that focuses on communal relationships with others such as family, friends, and community
companionate love
type of love consisting of intimacy and commitment, but not passion; associated with close friendships and family relationships
confederate
person who works for a researcher and is aware of the experiment, but who acts as a participant; used to manipulate social situations as part of the research design
confirmation bias
seeking out information that supports our stereotypes while ignoring information that is inconsistent with our stereotypes
conformity
when individuals change their behavior to go along with the group even if they do not agree with the group
consummate love
type of love occurring when intimacy, passion, and commitment are all present
cyberbullying
repeated behavior that is intended to cause psychological or emotional harm to another person and that takes place online
diffusion of responsibility
tendency for no one in a group to help because the responsibility to help is spread throughout the group
discrimination
negative actions toward individuals as a result of their membership in a particular group
dispositionism
describes a perspective common to personality psychologists, which asserts that our behavior is determined by internal factors, such as personality traits and temperament
empathy
capacity to understand another person’s perspective—to feel what they feel
foot-in-the-door technique
persuasion of one person by another person, encouraging a person to agree to a small favor, or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a larger item
fundamental attribution error
tendency to overemphasize internal factors as attributions for behavior and underestimate the power of the situation
group polarization
strengthening of the original group attitude after discussing views within the group
groupthink
group members modify their opinions to match what they believe is the group consensus
homophily
tendency for people to form social networks, including friendships, marriage, business relationships, and many other types of relationships, with others who are similar
homophobia
prejudice and discrimination against individuals based solely on their sexual orientation
hostile aggression
aggression motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause pain
in-group
group that we identify with or see ourselves as belonging to
in-group bias
preference for our own group over other groups
individualistic culture
culture that focuses on individual achievement and autonomy
informational social influence
conformity to a group norm prompted by the belief that the group is competent and has the correct information
instrumental aggression
aggression motivated by achieving a goal and does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain
internal factor
internal attribute of a person, such as personality traits or temperament
just-world hypothesis
ideology common in the United States that people get the outcomes they deserve
justification of effort
theory that people value goals and achievements more when they have put more effort into them
normative social influence
conformity to a group norm to fit in, feel good, and be accepted by the group
obedience
change of behavior to please an authority figure or to avoid aversive consequences
out-group
group that we don’t belong to—one that we view as fundamentally different from us
peripheral route persuasion
one person persuades another person; an indirect route that relies on association of peripheral cues (such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement) to associate positivity with a message
persuasion
process of changing our attitude toward something based on some form of communication
prejudice
negative attitudes and feelings toward individuals based solely on their membership in a particular group
prosocial behavior
voluntary behavior with the intent to help other people
racism
prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their race
reciprocity
give and take in relationships
romantic love
type of love consisting of intimacy and passion, but no commitment
scapegoating
act of blaming an out-group when the in-group experiences frustration or is blocked from obtaining a goal
script
person’s knowledge about the sequence of events in a specific setting
self-disclosure
sharing personal information in relationships
self-fulfilling prophecy
treating stereotyped group members according to our biased expectations only to have this treatment influence the individual to act according to our stereotypic expectations, thus confirming our stereotypic beliefs
self-serving bias
tendency for individuals to take credit by making dispositional or internal attributions for positive outcomes and situational or external attributions for negative outcomes
sexism
prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based on their sex
situationism
describes a perspective that behavior and actions are determined by the immediate environment and surroundings; a view promoted by social psychologists
social exchange theory
humans act as naïve economists in keeping a tally of the ratio of costs and benefits of forming and maintain a relationship, with the goal to maximize benefits and minimize costs
social loafing
exertion of less effort by a person working in a group because individual performance cannot be evaluated separately from the group, thus causing performance decline on easy tasks
social norm
group’s expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for the thoughts and behavior of its members
social psychology
field of psychology that examines how people impact or affect each other, with particular focus on the power of the situation
social role
socially defined pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group
stanford prison experiment
Stanford University conducted an experiment in a mock prison that demonstrated the power of social roles, social norms, and scripts
stereotype
specific beliefs or assumptions about individuals based solely on their membership in a group, regardless of their individual characteristics
triangular theory of love
model of love based on three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment; several types of love exist, depending on the presence or absence of each of these components