SECTIONALISM
Sectionalism and the Pre-Civil War Era
Overview
This study guide focuses on sectionalism leading up to the Civil War, particularly the rise of slavery and economic sectionalism between 1793 and 1860.
The North
Economic Characteristics:
United industrial northeastern states dominated primarily by the textile industry.
Agricultural interests established in the northwestern states (corn, wheat, livestock).
Benefited from good transportation routes which facilitated growth into thriving cities.
Most populous region in the United States during this period.
Demographics and Social Structure:
African Americans:
Comprised approximately 1% of the total population with half being free.
Experienced strong racial prejudices that restricted voting rights, employment opportunities, and union membership; often served as strikebreakers.
Immigration Surge (1830s-1850s):
Driven by famines and revolutions occurring in Europe.
Irish Immigrants:
Faced discrimination due to Catholic faith; competed with African Americans for low-paying jobs.
Involved actively in local politics, primarily as Democrats.
German Immigrants:
Established homesteads in the northwest and were notably supportive of educational initiatives.
Nativist Movements:
Represented fears about job loss and cultural impact, primarily amongst Protestant citizens.
Formed the Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner to influence politics, leading to the creation of the American or Know-Nothing Party in the 1850s.
The South
Economic Foundation:
Heavily relied on agriculture, predominantly cotton farming, which became an economic powerhouse.
The cotton gin, invented by Eli Whitney, revolutionized the industry by efficiently separating seed from fiber, leading to increased profits for land and slaves.
New fertile lands opened in Alabama and Mississippi catered to the cotton boom, fed by demands from British textile mills.
Cotton Industry Statistics:
By 1860, the South produced approximately 5 million bales of cotton annually, constituting 57% of total U.S. exports.
Developmental Challenges:
Industrialization was slow; lacked a robust financial system and adequate transportation infrastructure.
Southern Society
Social Hierarchy:
Small aristocracy consisting of individuals who owned 100 or more slaves and over 1,000 acres.
Majority of white slave owners possessed around 20 slaves on a few hundred acres.
Poor whites constituted 75% of the white population, often referred to disparagingly as "hillbillies."
The Peculiar Institution
Slavery's Growth:
Slave population swelled from 1 million in 1800 to 4 million by 1860, predominantly through natural population increase.
Approx. 250,000 free African Americans existed, often residing in cities but denied equal rights under state laws and at risk of kidnapping.
Slave conditions ranged widely from humane to brutal; all were deprived of basic freedoms, leading to the development of a distinct semi-independent culture emphasizing family and religion.
Defense of Slavery in the South
Cultural Justifications:
Southern proponents cited the Bible and Aristotle's wisdom in support of slavery, arguing it was beneficial for Africans who were salvaged from barbarism.
Portrayed the master-slave relationship as akin to a familial bond, contrasting the supposed happiness of enslaved laborers with that of overworked northern wage laborers.
Slave Rebellions
Gabriel Prosser (1800):
Who: Gabriel Prosser, a literate slave.
What: Organized a rebellion in Richmond, Virginia, involving hundreds of enslaved people.
When: 1800.
Where: Richmond, Virginia, and nearby areas.
How it affected history: Prosser and 25 followers were executed, leading to increased restrictions on free African Americans and harsher slave codes.
Denmark Vesey (1822):
Who: Denmark Vesey, a former slave in Charleston.
What: Planned a rebellion targeting armed escape to Haiti with around 1,000 slaves involved, aiming to take over Charleston's weapon storage and burn the city.
When: 1822.
Where: Charleston, South Carolina.
How it affected history: The plan was thwarted; Vesey and 35 others were executed. This intensified white Southern fears, leading to stricter enforcement of slave laws.
Nat Turner (1831):
Who: Nat Turner, an enslaved preacher.
What: Led a violent uprising, attacking white slave-owning families.
When: August 1831.
Where: Southampton County, Virginia.
How it affected history: Resulted in about 120 deaths (60 white, over 100 enslaved people in retaliation). Consequences included repressive laws across Virginia and other southern states prohibiting educational opportunities and rights for free blacks.
Political Sectionalism (1848-1860)
Election of 1844:
Democratic nominee James K. Polk, known as a "dark horse," championed the annexation of Texas and acquisition of California.
The Whigs nominated Henry Clay, who dissociated from the anti-slavery Liberty Party, fostering discontent.
Election of 1848:
General Zachary Taylor won the Whig nomination; Lewis Cass for Democrats promoted popular sovereignty.
Emergence of the Free Soil Party:
Formed primarily of Northern Whigs opposing Taylor's slave ownership, advocating for non-extension of slavery and white settlement.
Supported the Wilmot Proviso, which failed to pass Congress.
Election Results (1848):
Zachary Taylor (Whig): 163 electoral votes, 1,360,099 popular votes.
Lewis Cass (Democrat): 127 electoral votes, 1,220,544 popular votes.
Martin Van Buren (Free Soil): 0 electoral votes, 291,501 popular votes.
California Gold Rush
Implications of the Gold Discovery (1848):
Prompted a massive influx of migration and a constitutional move to ban slavery in California, reigniting sectional tensions.
Taylor supported the California constitution, leading to vehement Southern opposition, including discussions of secession.
Build-up to the Compromise of 1850
Core Issues:
The status of slavery in territories of Utah and New Mexico, balance of power in Congress, abolitionists demanding end to slavery in Washington D.C., and the plight of the Underground Railroad.
Key Figures:
Senatorial Giants: Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun, and Daniel Webster presented various viewpoints on compromise, with differing visions for the future.
The Compromise of 1850
What: A package of five separate laws passed by the U.S. Congress, designed to temporarily solve disputes over new territories and slavery. Its terms included California admitted as a free state; New Mexico and Utah determined by popular sovereignty; abolition of the slave trade (but not slavery) in D.C.; a more stringent Fugitive Slave Law; and Texas receiving 10 million to settle debts.
When: 1850.
Who: Key figures included Henry Clay (who wrote the initial ideas), Stephen Douglas (who helped get it passed), John C. Calhoun, and Daniel Webster.
Where: The United States Congress, affecting all U.S. territories and states.
How it affected history: It temporarily prevented disunion but exacerbated North-South tensions, particularly due to the harsh Fugitive Slave Law, which angered many Northerners.
Comparison of Fugitive Slave Laws:
1793 Law: Required proof of ownership.
1850 Law: Abolished the need for proof, mandated citizen cooperation in captures, and denied trials for captured slaves.
Cultural Impact: Uncle Tom’s Cabin
Who: Written by Harriet Beecher Stowe.
What: An anti-slavery novel that depicted the brutalities of slavery.
When: Published in 1852.
How it affected history: Profoundly influenced Northern sentiments against slavery, humanizing the suffering of enslaved people and building strong public opinion. Lincoln famously referred to it as a catalyst for the Civil War.
Election of 1852
Candidates included Winfield Scott for the Whigs and Franklin Pierce, a compromise choice for the Democrats.
Outcome demonstrated the significant fractures in the Whig Party, ending its effective political presence.
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)
Who: Proposed by Senator Stephen Douglas.
What: Aims to establish territories using the principle of popular sovereignty, allowing settlers to decide on slavery.
When: 1854.
Where: U.S. Congress, impacting future states in the Great Plains.
How it affected history: Repealed the Missouri Compromise, inciting Northern outrage, and leading to the formation of the Republican Party, thus significantly escalating national tensions.
Bleeding Kansas
What: Violent confrontations between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions.
When: Mid-1850s (especially 1854-1859).
Where: The Kansas Territory.
Who: Settlers supporting slavery ("Border Ruffians" from Missouri) clashed with anti-slavery settlers ("Free-Staters").
How it affected history: Led to two competing governments and significant bloodshed, demonstrating the failure of popular sovereignty to resolve the slavery issue peacefully and further dividing the nation.
The Dred Scott Decision
Who: Dred Scott (an enslaved man who sued for his freedom), Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, and the U.S. Supreme Court.
What: A landmark Supreme Court case, Dred Scott v. Sandford, concerning the legal rights of enslaved people and the constitutionality of the Missouri Compromise.
When: 1857.
How it affected history: Ruled that African Americans were not U.S. citizens and could not sue in federal courts. It also struck down the Missouri Compromise as unconstitutional, infuriating the Republican Party and polarizing opinions on slavery.
Panic of 1857
Triggered by economic failures and the influx of California gold, leading to widespread business failures.
The South weathered the Panic better than the North due to its cotton production, fostering a misleading perception of its economic stability.
Abraham Lincoln
Background includes a humble raise from a frontier family, self-taught in law, and an ascent in politics to become a leading voice for the Republican Party.
Lincoln-Douglas Debates
Noteworthy debates on slavery extension between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas, showcasing contrasting views.
John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry
A failed raid intending to initiate a slave uprising, ultimately portrayed Brown as a martyr for abolition in the North.
Democratic Divisions in the 1860 Election
Significant rifts within the party, leading to separate candidates for the Northern and Southern factions.
Results of the 1860 Presidential Election:
Overview of electoral and popular votes for each candidate, including Lincoln (Republican), Douglas (Northern Democrat), Breckinridge (Southern Democrat), and Bell (Constitutional Union) candidates.
The Collapse of Compromise and Secession
Buchanan’s inaction led to secessions by several states. Attempts at compromise by Senator Crittenden failed.
Fort Sumter and the Start of the Civil War
What: The bombardment and fall of a U.S. federal fort.
When: April 12-14, 1861.
Where: Charleston Harbor, South Carolina.
Who: Union forces led by Major Robert Anderson and Confederate forces led by General P.G.T. Beauregard.
How it affected history: Marked the onset of the Civil War following South Carolina’s secession, as Lincoln called for volunteer troops to suppress the rebellion, prompting further secession by other states.
Key Maps and Diagrams:
Secession Timeline: Detailing which states seceded before and after Lincoln’s election and the fall of Fort Sumter, highlighting the increasing divisions within the country.