Germany: Democracy to Dictatorship 1890-1945 Study Guide

The German Empire (1888-1918) was ruled by Kaiser Wilhelm II as an autocracy with a monarchy, although it contained some democratic elements. Following this, Germany transitioned to a democracy known as the Weimar Republic from 1919 to 1933, led by various presidents and chancellors. This period culminated in a dictatorship ruled by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party from 1933 to 1945.

The chronological stages of this course outline three distinct periods. Stage 1: The Growth of Democracy (1890-1929) covers the late German Empire, World War I, the creation of the Weimar Republic, and recovery under Stresemann. Stage 2: Hitler's Rise to Power (1929-1933) focuses on the impact of the Great Depression and the transition from democracy to dictatorship. Stage 3: Life in Nazi Germany (1933-1945) explores the economic policies, social control measures, World War II, and the Holocaust.

The German Empire was created in 1871 from 26 states, with Prussia being the largest and militarily dominant state. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was the grandson of Queen Victoria, harbored envy for Britain's wealth and navy. His obsession with the military led him to rarely be seen out of uniform and to rely on soldiers for advice. Wilhelm believed in the "Divine Right of Kings," was insensitive to public opinion, and demonstrated erratic behaviors, being prone to rage and laziness concerning daily administration, boasting he had never read the Imperial Constitution.

The governance structure under Kaiser Wilhelm II included the Chancellor, who was answerable only to the Kaiser and not parliament. The post was previously held by Otto von Bismarck, who wielded immense power until his removal in 1890. The Bundesrat, a non-elected group of 61 representatives from the 26 states, dominated by wealthy Prussian landowners, shared the Kaiser’s interests and could veto laws passed by the Reichstag. The Reichstag was elected every five years by men over the age of 25, had limited power, and the Kaiser could ignore their advice or dissolve them, although the growing influence of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) increased pressure for reform.

Challenges faced by the Kaiser between 1890 and 1914 included rapid industrialization, which he instigated to rival British industry, resulting in Germany producing double the steel of Britain by 1914. Urbanization led to problems as the population grew significantly, with by 1910, 600,000 Germans residing in cities and farming employment dropping, necessitating food imports. Additionally, the rise of socialism represented by the SPD, which became the largest party in the Reichstag by 1912, posed challenges as workers faced poor conditions. Anti-socialist reforms were passed to appease the workers, including the Social Law in 1891, extensions to accident insurance in 1900, establishment of industrial arbitration courts in 1901, and health insurance improvements in 1903. Furthermore, trade unions saw a membership rise to 3.3 million by 1914, and strikes threatened industrial output. Tensions increased due to the Navy Laws and Weltpolitik, driven by Admiral von Tirpitz, which caused national debt and created tensions with Britain, leading to the formation of the Triple Entente in 1907.

The impact of the First World War from 1914-1918 was profound, marked by severe social and economic consequences. The British naval blockade initiated in 1915 caused food shortages, with the bad harvest in 1916 and the Spanish Flu epidemic exacerbating the situation. Over 2 million German soldiers died during the war, resulting in significant social upheaval. Industrial output collapsed, and German financial obligations skyrocketed, leading to political unrest marked by protests and the Kiel Mutiny in late 1918, which contributed to Wilhelm II's abdication. Friedrich Ebert from the SPD subsequently formed an emergency government.

The Weimar Republic was established with Ebert being elected President in January 1919. The constitution provided for a President elected every seven years, a Chancellor to manage daily running of the country, and a Reichstag elected every four years via Proportional Representation. This method, however, led to many small parties in parliament and unstable coalitions.

The early Weimar crisis with the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919 was characterized by the “Stab in the Back” myth propagated by right-wingers. The treaty’s harsh terms included significant territorial losses, military restrictions, and reparations, which further destabilized the political landscape.

Political uprisings ensued from 1919 to 1923, including the Spartacist Uprising and Kapp Putsch, with a series of political assassinations creating a climate of fear. The crisis of 1923, highlighted by the invasion of the Ruhr and subsequent hyperinflation, decimated the economy, causing prices to soar and impacting savings and pensions.

The Munich Putsch in 1923 attempted to capitalize on hyperinflation, where Hitler and his followers made a failed attempt to seize power, resulting in Hitler's imprisonment, during which he authored Mein Kampf.

German recovery occurred in the Golden Years (1924-1929) under Gustav Stresemann, who oversaw economic stabilization through the introduction of a new currency and plans such as the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan. Cultural advancements flourished alongside economic recovery, though the Wall Street Crash of 1929 prompted another economic downturn and increased Nazi support due to rising unemployment and government failures.

Hitler's consolidation of dictatorship occurred between 1933 and 1934, marked by the Reichstag Fire and the passing of the Enabling Act, which allowed him to legislate without parliamentary consent. This period also saw the establishment of a police state with propaganda and fear tactics facilitated by the SS and Gestapo.

The Nazi regime oversaw strict control of various societal aspects, including women’s roles, youth indoctrination, and religious persecution, with the eventual systematic elimination of marginalized groups leading to the Holocaust. Opposition to Nazi rule came from various segments of society, including youth groups and military plots, but was ultimately constrained by the regime’s repressive measures.