O Level History: Political Developments in the Sub-Continent (1905-1947)

The Partition of Bengal ($1905$) and the Swadeshi Movement

The Viceroy Lord Curzon proposed the partition of Bengal in $1903$, and it was implemented in $1905$. This decision was driven by the fact that Bengal was the most densely populated province in British India, housing approximately $85\text{ Million}$ people. Its geographical size was comparable to that of France, making it administratively difficult for the British to govern effectively. The British feared they would lose control over such a vast land, and smaller provinces were deemed more efficient for administration. Three specific areas—Dhaka, Chittagong, and Myemnsingh—were separated and merged with Assam to create the new province of East Bengal. Historically, the Western part of Bengal was more developed, while the Eastern part was neglected. The British argued that partition would lead to equal development in education and employment throughout the region.

Demographically, West Bengal had a population of $42\text{ million}$ Hindus and $12\text{ million}$ Muslims. In contrast, the newly created East Bengal had a Muslim majority of $18\text{ million}$ compared to $12\text{ million}$ Hindus. This shift pleased the Muslim community as they gained recognition as a majority in the new province. Prior to the partition, the Muslim community in United Bengal felt exploited and deprived under the domination of the Hindu majority. Reformers like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan had worked to remove misunderstandings between the Muslims and the British, and the British realized that Muslims had been victimized since the War of $1857$. They intended to give Muslims more power to improve relations and help them prosper.

Hindus reacted to the partition with great hostility, viewing it as a deliberate \"divide and rule\" policy intended to weaken Hindu influence and monopoly. The Indian National Congress organized mass rallies, meetings, and strikes. This opposition included terrorist activities, such as an attempt to assassinate Lord Minto and Lord Curzon. The Swadeshi Movement was launched, involving a boycott of British goods. Local hand-made Khaddar became a symbol of honor, and British cotton was publicly burned, resulting in a significant net loss in British silk and cotton sales. Due to the intense pressure, the British government reconsidered the policy and officially reversed the partition during the royal visit in $1911$. This reversal was seen as a betrayal by the Muslims, who realized they could no longer rely on British or Hindu cooperation to protect their interests.

The Simla Deputation and Formation of the Muslim League ($1906$)

In $1906$, a group of prominent Muslims organized the Simla Deputation to meet Viceroy Lord Minto. They were dismayed by the Hindu protest against the Partition of Bengal and feared that a lack of organized Muslim political pressure would lead the British to reverse the partition. Furthermore, a new Liberal government was elected in Britain in $1905$, which promised increased local participation in the Indian government through elections. Muslims feared Hindu domination in any local government formed under these reforms. The deputation presented demands for separate representation, elections by only Muslim voters, and weightage in all elected bodies. Lord Minto accepted these demands, which marked a sudden upturn in British-Muslim relations and provided Muslims with political recognition for the first time since $1857$.

The success of the Simla Deputation provided the motivation to establish the All India Muslim League ($AIML$) later in $1906$. The League served as a political platform to protect Muslim rights and counter the influence of the Indian National Congress. Muslim leaders recognized that relying on the Congress was futile, as it was a Hindu-dominated party aiming for a cultural \"Democratic\" whole where Hindi would be the official language. There were also growing threats from extreme Hindu nationalist groups like the Arya Samaj, which sought to forcibly convert Muslims to Hinduism. The formation of the $AIML$ was the first real political step toward a separate homeland, ensuring the community remained organized rather than disunited over issues like the Bengal partition.

The Morley-Minto Reforms ($1909$) and the Lucknow Pact ($1916$)

The Morley-Minto Reforms, also known as the Indian Councils Act of $1909$, were introduced by Secretary of State John Morley and Viceroy Lord Minto. These reforms intended to enlarge the legislative councils and allow Indians to voice their opinions. Crucially, the British granted Muslims the right to separate electorates. The Congress Party opposed these reforms, as they sought self-rule rather than just advisory roles. Hindus also resented the relative high position given to Muslims in the councils despite their smaller population. Congress preferred joint electorates, as their majority status would ensure they won most seats.

By $1916$, shifting political circumstances led to the Lucknow Pact. The reversal of the Partition of Bengal in $1911$ and the British involvement in the Balkan Wars against Ottoman Turkey ($1912$-$1913$) had alienated Muslims from the British. Under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who was then a member of both Congress and the Muslim League, the two parties agreed to cooperate. The Lucknow Pact was a landmark agreement where Congress officially accepted separate electorates for Muslims. Both parties demanded provincial autonomy and self-rule, realizing that cooperation was the only way to persuade the British government to grant constitutional reforms. This pact essentially established communal politics by identifying India as being composed of two different communities with distinct interests.

Post-War Developments and the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms ($1919$)

Following World War I, Britain was economically weakened but remained reluctant to grant India self-rule, viewing it as the \"jewel of the Empire.\" In $1919$, the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (Government of India Act $1919$) were introduced. These reforms established a system of \"Diarchy\" at the provincial level, where certain powers (transferred subjects like education) were given to Indians, while key powers (reserved subjects like justice and finance) remained in British hands. The franchise was expanded, though property qualifications meant only $2\%$ of the population—about $5\text{ million}$ people out of $250\text{ million}$—could vote. Indians were disappointed by these reforms, as they felt their support during the war earned them greater concessions.

Frustration was exacerbated by the Rowlatt Act of $1919$, which allowed for arrest without a warrant and detention without bail. This led to widespread strikes and the tragic Amritsar Massacre (Jallianwala Bagh incident) in $1919$, where General Dyer ordered soldiers to open fire on a peaceful crowd of nearly $20\text{ thousand}$ people. This resulted in approximately $400$ deaths and $1200$ injuries. Though General Dyer was removed from service, he was not strictly punished, and his support in the British media further offended Indians, fueling more violence between $1919$ and $1920$.

The Khilafat Movement ($1919$-$1924$)

The Khilafat Movement emerged because Muslims in South Asia were deeply concerned about the fate of the Ottoman Caliphate (Khilafat) after World War I. British Prime Minister Lloyd George intended to split Turkey similarly to Germany and Austria. Muslims held the Turkish Sultan, the Khalifa, in high regard as the spiritual leader of the global Muslim community and protector of sacred places like Makkah, Madina, and Jerusalem. The British had promised not to attack Turkey during the war if Muslims supported them, but they broke this promise after the war. This led to mass agitation, with many Muslims deserting the British army.

The movement eventually failed by $1924$ due to several factors. In $1920$, thousands of Muslims migrated to Afghanistan in a Hijrat, but the Afghan government refused them entry, leaving the migrants destitute. The Chauri Chaura incident in $1922$, where protestors killed $21$ policemen, led Mahatma Gandhi to withdraw the support of the Congress Party. Additionally, the Moplah uprising in South India saw religious Muslims attack Hindu landlords, creating communal rifts. The final blow came in $1924$ when Mustafa Kamal Attaturk formed a nationalist government in Turkey and abolished the Khilafat institution himself, leaving the movement in India without a cause.

The Simon Commission ($1927$) and Nehru Report ($1928$)

In $1927$, the British sent the Simon Commission, a seven-member all-British delegation, to study the progress of the $1919$ reforms and suggest new ones. The commission was boycotted by Indians because it excluded native members. In response, an All Parties Conference produced the Nehru Report in $1928$. This report marked a significant departure from the Lucknow Pact, as it rejected separate electorates and demanded a unitary form of government with Hindi as the official language. Muslims felt totally alienated, as the report threatened their culture and political future.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah responded in $1929$ with his Fourteen Points. He demanded a federal system with provincial autonomy, separation of Sindh from Bombay, and $1/3\text{rd}$ Muslim representation in the central legislature. He also insisted that separate electorates be maintained until Muslim rights were guaranteed. The divergence between the Nehru Report and Jinnah’s Fourteen Points signaled a permanent \"parting of the ways\" between Hindus and Muslims.

The Round Table Conferences ($1930$-$1932$) and the $1935$ Act

To resolve the constitutional deadlock, the British organized three Round Table Conferences in London. The First RTC ($1930$) was somewhat successful as it approved a federal system and separate electorates, but Congress boycotted it. The Second RTC ($1931$) saw Gandhi’s participation after the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, but it ended in failure because Gandhi refused to recognize minority rights. The Third RTC ($1932$) was a mere formality, with both Congress and Jinnah absent. Lord Willingdon, the new Viceroy, was less sympathetic to Indian demands than his predecessor, Lord Irwin.

Despite the lack of consensus, the British passed the Government of India Act of $1935$. This Act granted significant provincial autonomy and expanded the franchise to $25\%$ of the population ($35\text{ million}$ voters). However, the Viceroy and provincial governors still held veto powers and could dismiss administrations. While many Muslim demands were included, such as the separation of Sindh and autonomy for the $NWFP$, the Muslim League and Congress both criticized the Act for keeping ultimate power in British hands.

The Elections of $1937$ and Congress Rule ($1937$-$1939$)

In the $1937$ provincial elections, Congress won majorities in five provinces and emerged as the largest party in four others, eventually forming governments in eight provinces. The Muslim League performed poorly, winning only $109$ out of $489$ Muslim seats. Jinnah realized the League needed to mobilize at the grassroots level. During the two-and-a-half years of Congress Rule, Muslims faced what they described as a \"reign of terror.\" The Bande Mataram song, which contained anti-Muslim sentiments, was made the national anthem. The Wardha Scheme and Vidya Mandir scheme were implemented in schools, requiring Muslim children to bow before Gandhi's picture and learn Hindu myths, which was seen as a covert attempt at conversion. Hindu-Muslim riots became common, and attacks were made on mosques and religious leaders.

When World War II broke out in $1939$, Congress resigned in protest because Britain involved India in the war without consultation. Jinnah called on Muslims to observe the \"Day of Deliverance\" on $22\text{ December } 1939$ to celebrate the end of Congress tyranny. This period solidified the Muslim demand for a separate state, leading to the Lahore Resolution (Pakistan Resolution) on $23\text{ March } 1940$, where Jinnah formally declared that Hindus and Muslims were two distinct nations.

Final Negotiations: World War II to Partition ($1940$-$1947$)

During the war, the British sent the Cripps Mission ($1942$) to offer dominion status in exchange for war support, but it was rejected by both parties. Congress launched the Quit India Movement in $1942$ to pressure the British to leave immediately, but the British arrested Gandhi and Nehru. Jinnah used this absence to strengthen the Muslim League. In $1944$, the Gandhi-Jinnah talks failed because Gandhi refused to accept the Two-Nation Theory and wanted a strong central government. In $1945$, the Simla Conference also ended in a deadlock over who had the right to nominate Muslim members to the executive council.

In the $1945$-$1946$ elections, the Muslim League won every single Muslim seat in the central legislature, proving it was the sole representative of Indian Muslims. In $1946$, the Cabinet Mission Plan proposed a loose federation with three groups of provinces, but it failed after Nehru suggested Congress might change the plan later. Jinnah then called for \"Direct Action Day\" on $16\text{ August } 1946$, leading to massive rioting and thousands of deaths. Realizing that civil war was imminent, the British government under Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced in February $1947$ that they would leave by $1948$. Lord Mountbatten was sent as the final Viceroy to oversee the $3\text{ June Plan } 1947$, which partitioned the subcontinent into the independent states of India and Pakistan in August $1947$.

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