aphg 1.3

Perfect — this is the next section (pages ~70–78) turned into a clean, complete Q&A study guide, just like before:
✔ all important concepts
✔ simplified but still AP-level accurate
✔ nothing unnecessary


AP Human Geography

Q&A Study Guide (Part 2)

Diffusion + Maps + Cartography + Cognitive Maps


SPATIAL DIFFUSION

1. What is spatial diffusion?

Spatial diffusion is the spread of ideas, behaviors, technologies, or diseases across space.


2. Why is spatial diffusion important?

Because it explains how things like:

  • technology

  • culture

  • diseases
    move from place to place.


3. What are the two main types of diffusion?

  1. Expansion diffusion

  2. Relocation diffusion


EXPANSION DIFFUSION

4. What is expansion diffusion?

It is when something spreads but remains strong in its original area.


5. What are the two types of expansion diffusion?

  1. Contagious diffusion

  2. Hierarchical diffusion


6. What is contagious diffusion?

Spread occurs because people are close together.

👉 Think: fast, person-to-person spread

Example:

  • disease spreading

  • viral trends


7. What is hierarchical diffusion?

Spread occurs through powerful people or important places.

👉 Not just distance — depends on influence

Example:

  • trends starting in big cities (NYC, LA)

  • celebrities influencing fashion


8. Why do big cities adopt trends first?

Because they have:

  • high population

  • strong connectivity
    → (ties back to the gravity model)


RELOCATION DIFFUSION

9. What is relocation diffusion?

Spread happens when people move and bring ideas with them.


10. What example is given?

Early European migrants brought:

  • languages

  • food

  • culture
    to the United States


GRAVITY & RETAIL

11. What is the gravity idea (extended)?

Large cities have a stronger “pull” because of:

  • jobs

  • services

  • opportunities


12. What is the law of retail gravitation?

People are drawn to larger cities for business because they have more options.


13. What is a breaking point?

The boundary between two cities’ areas of influence.

👉 Where people switch from going to one city to another


MAP FUNDAMENTALS

14. Why are maps important?

They help display spatial information visually.


15. Why do maps look different?

Because cartographers choose based on:

  • purpose

  • data

  • design choices


16. What decisions do cartographers make?

They choose:

  • projection type

  • level of detail (simplification)

  • level of aggregation

  • scale

  • symbols


MAP PROJECTIONS

17. What is a map projection?

A way to show the 3D Earth on a flat surface.


18. What is the key problem with map projections?

You cannot perfectly represent Earth on a flat map.

👉 All maps have distortion


19. What can maps distort?

  • shape

  • size (area)

  • distance

  • direction


MERCATOR PROJECTION

20. What does the Mercator projection preserve?

Direction (compass accuracy)


21. What does it distort?

Area (size of land)


22. What happens near the poles?

Land appears much larger than it really is

Example:

  • Greenland looks huge


23. Why does distortion increase near poles?

Because the map stretches space outward


OTHER PROJECTIONS

24. What is the Fuller projection?

  • Keeps accurate size/shape

  • BUT distorts direction
    → looks broken into triangles


25. What is the Robinson projection?

  • Tries to balance all distortions

  • Not perfect in anything, but good overall


26. What is the Peters projection?

  • Equal-area map

  • Shows correct land size

  • Often centered on Africa


27. What are azimuthal projections?

  • Show Earth from one point (like a pole)

  • Look like a flat disk


28. What is the MOST important projection rule?

👉 There is NO perfect map projection
Every map involves trade-offs


MAP DESIGN

29. What is simplification?

Maps only show important details, not everything.


30. Why do maps simplify?

Because too much detail would make maps confusing and unreadable


31. What determines what is shown?

  • purpose of the map

  • size of area


AGGREGATION

32. What is aggregation?

Grouping data into larger units

Example:

  • counties

  • states

  • countries


33. Why does aggregation matter?

It can change how patterns look


34. Example from the text?

State-level data hides differences that exist at the county level


MAP SCALE

35. What is map scale?

The ratio between:

  • map distance
    and

  • real-world distance


36. What is a small-scale map?

  • Shows large area

  • Less detail

Example:

  • world map


37. What is a large-scale map?

  • Shows small area

  • More detail

Example:

  • neighborhood map


38. Easy way to remember:

  • Large scale = zoomed in

  • Small scale = zoomed out


SCALE OF ANALYSIS

39. What is scale of analysis?

The level at which data is studied:

  • local

  • national

  • global


40. Why is scale of analysis important?

Different scales show different patterns


41. Examples:

  • global → migration patterns

  • national → economic trends

  • local → neighborhood change


RESOLUTION

42. What is resolution?

The smallest detail visible on a map


43. High vs low resolution:

  • High = more detail

  • Low = less detail


44. Example:

Satellite images can show:

  • cars

  • buildings
    → very high resolution


TYPES OF MAPS

45. What are the two main categories of maps?

  1. Reference maps

  2. Thematic maps


46. What are reference maps?

Used for:

  • location

  • navigation


47. What are thematic maps?

Show specific data or patterns


THEMATIC MAP TYPES

48. What are isolines?

Lines connecting points of equal value


49. Example of isolines?

Topographic maps:

  • show elevation


50. What happens if you walk along an isoline?

You stay at the same elevation


51. What are proportional symbol maps?

Symbol size shows amount of something


52. What are dot maps?

Dots show exact locations of events


53. What are choropleth maps?

Use color shading to show data by area


54. What are cartograms?

Distort map size based on data

Example:

  • population map → China/India look huge


VISUALIZATIONS

55. What are visualizations?

Modern maps using:

  • computers

  • 3D models

  • interactive tools


56. Why are they important?

They help analyze:

  • patterns

  • changes over time


POWER OF MAPS

57. Why are maps powerful?

They:

  • communicate ideas

  • influence decisions


58. What example is given?

John Snow (cholera map):

  • mapped disease cases

  • identified contaminated water pump


COGNITIVE MAPS

59. What is a cognitive map?

A mental map in your mind of places.


60. What do cognitive maps show?

How people:

  • understand space

  • remember places


61. Why are they different for everyone?

Because they depend on:

  • experience

  • culture

  • knowledge


62. What do cognitive maps reveal?

They show:

  • perception

  • bias

  • knowledge level


63. Example differences:

  • wealthy students → detailed maps

  • poorer individuals → limited local knowledge


PREFERENCE MAPS

64. What are preference maps?

Maps showing where people prefer to live


65. What patterns are shown?

People prefer:

  • West Coast

  • New England


66. What influences preferences?

  • climate

  • economy

  • quality of life


APPLICATIONS OF GEOGRAPHY

67. Why is geography important today?

Because global problems are spatial


68. What problems does geography help solve?

  • population growth

  • environmental issues

  • disease spread


69. How does technology help geography?

  • satellites

  • data analysis

  • climate models


70. What do geographers do with this?

They:

  • predict patterns

  • help policymakers

  • improve planning


71. Example given?

Climate scientists predict global warming impacts


72. What fields do geographers work in?

  • government

  • business

  • education

  • research


FINAL BIG IDEAS (VERY IMPORTANT)

73. What are the 4 BIG concepts from this section?

  1. Diffusion → how things spread

  2. Maps → how we represent space

  3. Scale & data → affects patterns

  4. Human perception → affects understanding


74. What is the #1 takeaway for AP exam?

👉 Geography is about:

  • patterns

  • connections

  • how space influences everything


If you want next step, I can:

  • turn this into a quiz (AP-style questions)

  • give you a 1-page cheat sheet

  • or test you until you master it

Just tell me 👍