aphg 1.3

Perfect — this is the next section (pages ~70–78) turned into a clean, complete Q&A study guide, just like before:
✔ all important concepts
✔ simplified but still AP-level accurate
✔ nothing unnecessary

AP Human Geography

Q&A Study Guide (Part 2)

Diffusion + Maps + Cartography + Cognitive Maps

SPATIAL DIFFUSION

1. What is spatial diffusion?

Spatial diffusion is the spread of ideas, behaviors, technologies, or diseases across space.

2. Why is spatial diffusion important?

Because it explains how things like:

technology
culture
diseases
move from place to place.

3. What are the two main types of diffusion?

Expansion diffusion
Relocation diffusion

EXPANSION DIFFUSION

4. What is expansion diffusion?

It is when something spreads but remains strong in its original area.

5. What are the two types of expansion diffusion?

Contagious diffusion
Hierarchical diffusion

6. What is contagious diffusion?

Spread occurs because people are close together.

👉 Think: fast, person-to-person spread

Example:

disease spreading
viral trends

7. What is hierarchical diffusion?

Spread occurs through powerful people or important places.

👉 Not just distance — depends on influence

Example:

trends starting in big cities (NYC, LA)
celebrities influencing fashion

8. Why do big cities adopt trends first?

Because they have:

high population
strong connectivity
→ (ties back to the gravity model)

RELOCATION DIFFUSION

9. What is relocation diffusion?

Spread happens when people move and bring ideas with them.

10. What example is given?

Early European migrants brought:

languages
food
culture
to the United States

GRAVITY & RETAIL

11. What is the gravity idea (extended)?

Large cities have a stronger “pull” because of:

jobs
services
opportunities

12. What is the law of retail gravitation?

People are drawn to larger cities for business because they have more options.

13. What is a breaking point?

The boundary between two cities’ areas of influence.

👉 Where people switch from going to one city to another

MAP FUNDAMENTALS

14. Why are maps important?

They help display spatial information visually.

15. Why do maps look different?

Because cartographers choose based on:

purpose
data
design choices

16. What decisions do cartographers make?

They choose:

projection type
level of detail (simplification)
level of aggregation
scale
symbols

MAP PROJECTIONS

17. What is a map projection?

A way to show the 3D Earth on a flat surface.

18. What is the key problem with map projections?

You cannot perfectly represent Earth on a flat map.

👉 All maps have distortion

19. What can maps distort?

shape
size (area)
distance
direction

MERCATOR PROJECTION

20. What does the Mercator projection preserve?

Direction (compass accuracy)

21. What does it distort?

Area (size of land)

22. What happens near the poles?

Land appears much larger than it really is

Example:

Greenland looks huge

23. Why does distortion increase near poles?

Because the map stretches space outward

OTHER PROJECTIONS

24. What is the Fuller projection?

Keeps accurate size/shape
BUT distorts direction
→ looks broken into triangles

25. What is the Robinson projection?

Tries to balance all distortions
Not perfect in anything, but good overall

26. What is the Peters projection?

Equal-area map
Shows correct land size
Often centered on Africa

27. What are azimuthal projections?

Show Earth from one point (like a pole)
Look like a flat disk

28. What is the MOST important projection rule?

👉 There is NO perfect map projection
Every map involves trade-offs

MAP DESIGN

29. What is simplification?

Maps only show important details, not everything.

30. Why do maps simplify?

Because too much detail would make maps confusing and unreadable

31. What determines what is shown?

purpose of the map
size of area

AGGREGATION

32. What is aggregation?

Grouping data into larger units

Example:

counties
states
countries

33. Why does aggregation matter?

It can change how patterns look

34. Example from the text?

State-level data hides differences that exist at the county level

MAP SCALE

35. What is map scale?

The ratio between:

map distance
and
real-world distance

36. What is a small-scale map?

Shows large area
Less detail

Example:

world map

37. What is a large-scale map?

Shows small area
More detail

Example:

neighborhood map

38. Easy way to remember:

Large scale = zoomed in
Small scale = zoomed out

SCALE OF ANALYSIS

39. What is scale of analysis?

The level at which data is studied:

local
national
global

40. Why is scale of analysis important?

Different scales show different patterns

41. Examples:

global → migration patterns
national → economic trends
local → neighborhood change

RESOLUTION

42. What is resolution?

The smallest detail visible on a map

43. High vs low resolution:

High = more detail
Low = less detail

44. Example:

Satellite images can show:

cars
buildings
→ very high resolution

TYPES OF MAPS

45. What are the two main categories of maps?

Reference maps
Thematic maps

46. What are reference maps?

Used for:

location
navigation

47. What are thematic maps?

Show specific data or patterns

THEMATIC MAP TYPES

48. What are isolines?

Lines connecting points of equal value

49. Example of isolines?

Topographic maps:

show elevation

50. What happens if you walk along an isoline?

You stay at the same elevation

51. What are proportional symbol maps?

Symbol size shows amount of something

52. What are dot maps?

Dots show exact locations of events

53. What are choropleth maps?

Use color shading to show data by area

54. What are cartograms?

Distort map size based on data

Example:

population map → China/India look huge

VISUALIZATIONS

55. What are visualizations?

Modern maps using:

computers
3D models
interactive tools

56. Why are they important?

They help analyze:

patterns
changes over time

POWER OF MAPS

57. Why are maps powerful?

They:

communicate ideas
influence decisions

58. What example is given?

John Snow (cholera map):

mapped disease cases
identified contaminated water pump

COGNITIVE MAPS

59. What is a cognitive map?

A mental map in your mind of places.

60. What do cognitive maps show?

How people:

understand space
remember places

61. Why are they different for everyone?

Because they depend on:

experience
culture
knowledge

62. What do cognitive maps reveal?

They show:

perception
bias
knowledge level

63. Example differences:

wealthy students → detailed maps
poorer individuals → limited local knowledge

PREFERENCE MAPS

64. What are preference maps?

Maps showing where people prefer to live

65. What patterns are shown?

People prefer:

West Coast
New England

66. What influences preferences?

climate
economy
quality of life

APPLICATIONS OF GEOGRAPHY

67. Why is geography important today?

Because global problems are spatial

68. What problems does geography help solve?

population growth
environmental issues
disease spread

69. How does technology help geography?

satellites
data analysis
climate models

70. What do geographers do with this?

They:

predict patterns
help policymakers
improve planning

71. Example given?

Climate scientists predict global warming impacts

72. What fields do geographers work in?

government
business
education
research

FINAL BIG IDEAS (VERY IMPORTANT)

73. What are the 4 BIG concepts from this section?

Diffusion → how things spread
Maps → how we represent space
Scale & data → affects patterns
Human perception → affects understanding

74. What is the #1 takeaway for AP exam?

👉 Geography is about:

patterns
connections
how space influences everything

If you want next step, I can:

turn this into a quiz (AP-style questions)
give you a 1-page cheat sheet
or test you until you master it

Just tell me 👍