AP Gov Vocab

14th Amendment – Grants citizenship and equal protection under the law to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S.

3/5th Compromise – Constitutional agreement counting enslaved people as 3/5 of a person for representation and taxation purposes.

527 Groups – Tax-exempt political organizations that raise money to influence elections but aren't directly tied to a candidate.

AARP – Interest group representing the interests of Americans aged 50 and older.

Advice and Consent Power – Senate's constitutional authority to approve presidential appointments and treaties.

Affirmative action – Policies giving preference to underrepresented groups to remedy historical discrimination.

Agenda Setting – Media's power to influence which issues the public considers important.

American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) – Nonprofit organization that defends individual civil liberties guaranteed by the Constitution.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 – Law prohibiting discrimination against people with disabilities in employment and public life.

Amicus curiae briefs – "Friend of the court" documents filed by non-parties to offer relevant information in a case.

Anti-federalists – Opponents of ratifying the Constitution who feared a strong central government.

Appeals Courts – Courts that review decisions made by lower courts for legal errors.

Appeals Process – The procedure by which a losing party requests a higher court to review a lower court's decision.

Appropriations – Congressional process of allocating funds for government programs and agencies.

Approval Power – Senate's authority to confirm or reject presidential nominees.

Articles of Confederation – The first governing document of the U.S., replaced by the Constitution due to its weak central government.

Attorney General – Head of the Department of Justice and the nation's chief law enforcement officer.

Bicameral – A legislature divided into two chambers (e.g., the House and Senate).

Bill of attainder – A law that punishes a person without a trial; prohibited by the Constitution.

Bipartisanship – Cooperation between the two major political parties.

Block grants – Federal money given to states with few restrictions on how it's spent.

Broad Constructionist – One who interprets the Constitution loosely, allowing implied government powers.

Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 – Law reasserting Congress's control over the federal budget process.

Bully Pulpit – The president's ability to use the office's visibility to influence public opinion.

Bureaucracy – The complex system of government agencies and employees that implement policy.

Bureaucratic Discretion – The latitude bureaucrats have in interpreting and applying laws.

Cabinet – The group of heads of executive departments who advise the president.

Cabinet Departments – The 15 major executive branch agencies (e.g., State, Defense, Treasury).

Campaign Finance – The money raised and spent to influence elections.

Candidate-Centered Campaign – A campaign focused on the individual candidate rather than the party.

Casework – Assistance members of Congress provide to constituents dealing with government agencies.

Categorical grants – Federal funds given to states for a specific purpose with strict conditions.

Caucus (general) – A meeting of members of a political party or group to make decisions.

Caucus (primary) – A state-level meeting where voters publicly choose their preferred presidential candidate.

Census – Official count of the U.S. population conducted every 10 years.

Checks and balances – The system where each branch of government can limit the powers of the others.

Chief Bureaucrat – Presidential role of overseeing the federal bureaucracy.

Chief Crisis Manager – Presidential role of responding to national emergencies.

Chief Diplomat – Presidential role of managing foreign policy and international relations.

Chief Economic Planner – Presidential role of guiding the nation's economic policy.

Chief Executive – Presidential role of enforcing laws and running the executive branch.

Chief- Head of State – Presidential role as the ceremonial symbol of the nation.

Chief Legislator – Presidential role of setting and pushing a legislative agenda.

Chief of Staff – The president's top aide who manages the White House staff and schedule.

Chief- Party Leader – Presidential role as the head of their political party.

Civil Liberties – Individual freedoms protected from government interference (e.g., free speech).

Civil Rights – Protections ensuring equal treatment and freedom from discrimination.

Civil Rights Act of 1964 – Law banning discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

Civil Service – Government employees hired based on merit rather than political connections.

Clean Air Act of 1970 – Federal law setting standards to regulate air pollution.

Closed rule – House rule that prevents amendments from being added to a bill on the floor.

Cloture vote – Senate vote (requiring 60 votes) to end a filibuster and force a vote.

Collective Action (public choice) – The difficulty of getting individuals to work together toward a common goal when they can benefit without contributing.

Commander in Chief – Presidential role as head of the U.S. military.

Commerce Clause – Constitutional provision giving Congress power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce.

Competitive federalism – A model where states compete to attract residents and businesses through differing policies.

Concurring opinion – A judge's agreement with the majority ruling but for different reasons.

Conference Committee – A temporary joint committee that reconciles differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.

Congressional oversight – Congress's ability to monitor and review the actions of the executive branch.

Congressional Sub-Committee – A smaller division of a standing committee focused on a specific issue.

Conservative – A political ideology favoring tradition, limited government, and free markets.

Conservative Spin – Framing of news or events from a right-leaning perspective.

Constituent – A citizen represented by an elected official.

Constitution – The supreme law of the United States, establishing the framework of government.

Cooperative federalism – A model where federal and state governments work together on policy ("marble cake").

Council of Economic Advisors – A group of economists in the EOP that advises the president on economic policy.

Dark money – Political spending by nonprofit groups that don't disclose their donors.

De facto segregation – Segregation that exists in practice (not by law), often due to housing patterns.

De jure segregation – Segregation enforced by law.

Defense Department – Executive department responsible for the U.S. military (the Pentagon).

Delegate model of Congressional Representation – The view that legislators should vote according to their constituents' wishes.

Delegated Powers – Powers that Congress has granted to the executive branch.

Delegates – Representatives chosen to vote at party conventions.

Democracy – A system of government where power is held by the people.

Democrat – A member of the Democratic Party, generally favoring active government and social programs.

Department of Justice – Federal agency responsible for enforcing federal law, led by the Attorney General.

Deregulation – The reduction or elimination of government regulations on industries.

Devolution – Transferring power from the federal government to state or local governments.

Direct Democracy – A system where citizens vote directly on laws and policies.

Discharge petition – A method to force a bill out of committee and onto the House floor without committee approval.

Discrimination – Unfair treatment of individuals based on characteristics like race, gender, or religion.

Dissenting opinion – A written disagreement by a judge with the majority ruling.

Divided Government – When one party controls the presidency and the other controls Congress.

Domestic Policy – Government decisions and actions related to issues within the country.

Dual federalism – A model where state and federal governments operate separately in their own spheres ("layer cake").

Due process – The principle that the government must follow fair legal procedures before depriving someone of life, liberty, or property.

Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment – Prevents states from depriving persons of life, liberty, or property without fair legal procedures.

Electoral College – The body of electors who formally elect the president and vice president.

Electors – Members of the Electoral College who cast official votes for president.

Elite theory – The idea that a small, wealthy elite holds most political power.

Eminent Domain – Government's power to take private property for public use with compensation.

Entitlement program – A government program guaranteeing benefits to eligible citizens (e.g., Medicare).

Enumerated Powers – Powers explicitly listed in the Constitution for Congress.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – Federal agency responsible for enforcing environmental regulations.

Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment – Requires states to provide equal legal protection to all persons.

Equal Rights Amendment – A proposed constitutional amendment guaranteeing equal rights regardless of sex (never fully ratified).

Establishment clause – First Amendment provision prohibiting the government from establishing an official religion.

Ex post facto laws – Laws that criminalize actions that were legal when committed; prohibited by the Constitution.

Exclusionary rule – Legal principle barring illegally obtained evidence from being used in court.

Executive agreements – Agreements with foreign countries made by the president without Senate approval.

Executive orders – Directives issued by the president that have the force of law.

Executive Privilege – The president's right to keep certain communications confidential.

Executive Office of the President (EOP) – The cluster of agencies and staff that directly support the president.

Exit Polls – Surveys taken of voters immediately after they leave polling places.

Extremist – A person who holds radical political views far outside the mainstream.

Faction – A group with a common interest that may conflict with the broader public good (Madison's term).

Federal Communications Commission (FCC) – Independent agency regulating radio, TV, and communications.

Federal District Courts – The trial courts of the federal judiciary.

Federal Election Campaign Act – Law regulating campaign finance and requiring disclosure of contributions.

Federal Election Commission (FEC) – Agency that enforces campaign finance laws.

Federal Reserve Board – The governing body of the Federal Reserve System.

Federal Reserve System – The central banking system of the U.S., managing monetary policy.

Federalism – Division of power between national and state governments.

Federalist #10 – Madison's essay arguing that a large republic with many factions prevents tyranny.

Federalist #51 – Madison's essay explaining how checks and balances and separation of powers prevent tyranny.

Federalist papers – A series of essays written to argue for ratification of the Constitution.

Federalists – Supporters of ratifying the Constitution and a strong central government.

Filibuster – A Senate tactic of prolonged debate to delay or block a vote on legislation.

Fiscal Federalism – The use of federal grants to influence state and local policy.

Fiscal policy – Government policy using taxation and spending to influence the economy.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA) – Federal agency regulating food safety and pharmaceutical drugs.

Foreign policy – Government strategy for managing relationships with other countries.

Formal Powers – Powers explicitly granted by the Constitution.

Formula grants – Federal funds distributed to states based on a formula (e.g., population, poverty rate).

Franking Privileges – The ability of members of Congress to send mail to constituents free of charge.

Free exercise clause – First Amendment protection of individuals' right to practice their religion.

Free-rider problem – When individuals benefit from collective action without contributing to it.

Front Loading – States moving their primaries earlier in the calendar to gain more influence.

Full Faith and Credit Clause – Requires states to recognize the legal acts and records of other states.

General election – The main election where voters choose between final candidates for office.

Germaneness Rule – Senate rule requiring amendments to be relevant to the bill being debated.

Gerrymandering – Drawing district lines to favor a particular party or group.

Government corporation – A government-owned business that operates like a private company (e.g., USPS).

Grassroots Campaign – A political campaign driven by local volunteers and ordinary citizens.

Grassroots mobilization – Organizing ordinary citizens at the local level to take political action.

Great Compromise – Agreement creating a bicameral Congress with equal Senate representation and population-based House representation.

Gridlock – The inability of government to act due to partisan disagreement.

Hard money – Campaign contributions made directly to a candidate, subject to legal limits.

Horse Race Journalism – Media coverage focusing on who's winning in polls rather than policy issues.

House Rules Committee – Powerful committee that sets the terms for debate on bills in the House.

House Ways and Means Committee – House committee with jurisdiction over tax and revenue legislation.

Hyperpluralist theory – The idea that too many competing interest groups make effective governance impossible.

Impeachment – The House's power to formally charge a president or other official with misconduct.

Implied Powers – Powers not explicitly stated in the Constitution but suggested by enumerated powers.

Incumbency advantage – The electoral benefit held by current officeholders over challengers.

Incumbent – A current officeholder running for re-election.

Independent – A voter or politician not affiliated with a major party.

Independent executive agency – A federal agency outside cabinet departments that reports to the president.

Independent regulatory agency – A federal agency that operates independently of the president (e.g., FCC, FEC).

Informal Powers – Powers of the president not explicitly in the Constitution but used in practice.

Inherent powers – Powers assumed by the president from the nature of the office, especially in foreign affairs.

Interdependency – The mutual reliance between different parts of the political system or nations.

Interest group – An organization that tries to influence government policy on behalf of its members.

Iron triangle – The stable relationship between a congressional committee, bureaucratic agency, and interest group.

Issue Network – A loose coalition of interest groups, experts, and officials focused on a specific policy area.

Jim Crow laws – State and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the South after Reconstruction.

Joint chiefs of staff – Senior military advisors to the president and Secretary of Defense.

Joint committee – A committee with members from both the House and Senate.

Judicial activism – The tendency of judges to interpret the Constitution broadly and make policy through rulings.

Judicial restraint – The tendency of judges to defer to elected branches and interpret the Constitution narrowly.

Judicial Review – The Supreme Court's power to declare laws unconstitutional (established in Marbury v. Madison).

Keynesian economics – Economic theory that government spending can stimulate the economy during downturns.

Lame-Duck Period – The time after an election when an outgoing official still holds office.

Legislature – The branch of government responsible for making laws (Congress at the federal level).

Libel – False written statements that damage a person's reputation.

Liberal – A political ideology favoring active government, social equality, and civil liberties.

Liberal Bias – The perception that media coverage favors left-leaning perspectives.

Libertarianism – A political philosophy favoring maximum individual freedom and minimal government.

Line-item veto – The power to veto specific parts of a bill (declared unconstitutional for the president).

Linkage Institution – An institution that connects citizens to government (e.g., parties, media, elections).

Linkage Institution (examples) – Political parties, interest groups, elections, and the media.

Litigation – The process of taking legal action through the courts.

Lobbying – Attempting to influence legislators or officials on behalf of an interest group.

Logrolling – When legislators trade votes to pass each other's favored bills.

Majority leaders (house/senate) – The floor leaders of the majority party in each chamber.

Majority Opinion – The official ruling of the Supreme Court agreed upon by a majority of justices.

Majority party power (house/senate) – The legislative advantages held by the party controlling each chamber.

Majority whip (house/senate) – Party official who counts votes and enforces party discipline.

Mandate (federal) – A requirement imposed by the federal government on states or localities.

Mandate (unfunded) – A federal requirement placed on states without providing funds to pay for it.

McCain-Feingold Act – 2002 law regulating soft money and campaign advertising.

Means Tested Programs – Benefits available only to those who fall below a certain income level.

Medicaid – Federal/state health insurance program for low-income individuals.

Medicare – Federal health insurance program for Americans aged 65 and older.

Merit system – Hiring and promoting government employees based on ability rather than political loyalty.

Midterm Election – Congressional elections held in the middle of a presidential term.

Minority leaders (house/senate) – The floor leaders of the minority party in each chamber.

Minority whip (house/senate) – Minority party official who tracks votes and encourages party unity.

Moderate – A person whose political views fall between liberal and conservative.

Monetary policy – Control of the money supply and interest rates, managed by the Federal Reserve.

Motor voter laws – Laws allowing citizens to register to vote when obtaining a driver's license.

Narrowcasting – Targeting media content to specific niche audiences rather than the general public.

National Party Convention – A gathering where a party formally nominates its presidential candidate.

National Security Advisor – The president's top advisor on national security and foreign policy.

National Security Establishment – The agencies and departments responsible for U.S. defense and security (e.g., DOD, CIA).

Nationalization – The process of bringing an issue or policy under federal rather than state control.

Natural Rights – Rights believed to be inherent to all humans (life, liberty, property — Locke).

Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause) – Gives Congress the power to make all laws necessary and proper to carry out its enumerated powers.

New Jersey Plan – Constitutional proposal giving all states equal representation in a unicameral legislature.

No Child Left Behind Act – 2001 education law tying federal funding to student testing standards.

Non-governmental organization (NGO) – A nonprofit organization that operates independently of government.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) – A military alliance among the U.S., Canada, and European nations.

NRA – National Rifle Association; a powerful interest group advocating for gun rights.

Obscenity – Speech or material not protected by the First Amendment due to its explicit sexual nature.

Office of Management and Budget – EOP agency that prepares the federal budget and oversees agency spending.

Open rule – House rule allowing amendments to be freely proposed to a bill on the floor.

Original Jurisdiction – A court's authority to hear a case for the first time.

Pardon – Presidential power to forgive a person for a federal crime.

Partisan – Strongly supporting one political party.

Partisan model of voting – Voting based primarily on party affiliation.

Patronage – Rewarding political supporters with government jobs or contracts.

Pendleton Civil Service Act – 1883 law establishing the merit-based civil service system.

Photo Identification Laws – State laws requiring voters to show photo ID at the polls.

Pluralism – The idea that many groups compete for power in a democracy.

Pluralist theory – The view that political power is distributed among many competing interest groups.

Plurality – Winning more votes than any other candidate, but not necessarily a majority.

Pocket Veto – When a president kills a bill by not signing it within 10 days while Congress is adjourned.

Polarization (beliefs) – The widening gap between people's ideological views.

Polarization (media) – Media outlets increasingly catering to ideologically divided audiences.

Polarization (party) – The increasing ideological distance between the Democratic and Republican parties.

Police Power – States' authority to regulate for the health, safety, and welfare of residents.

Policy Agenda – The set of issues government is currently focused on addressing.

Political Action Committees (PACs) – Organizations that raise and spend money to elect or defeat candidates.

Political Efficacy – A citizen's belief that their political participation can make a difference.

Political Polarization – The sharp division of society into opposing political camps.

Political socialization – The process by which people develop their political beliefs and values.

Populist Candidate – A politician who claims to represent ordinary people against a corrupt elite.

Pork barrel – Government spending on local projects to benefit a politician's constituents.

Power of the Purse – Congress's constitutional authority to control government spending.

Precedent – A prior court decision used as a guide for future cases.

President Pro Tempore – The senator who presides over the Senate in the VP's absence, usually the longest-serving majority senator.

Presidential coattails – The effect of a popular presidential candidate boosting down-ballot candidates.

Presidential Succession – The order in which officials assume the presidency if the president is unable to serve.

Primary (top-two) – All candidates run together; the top two vote-getters advance regardless of party.

Primary (closed) – Only registered members of a party may vote in that party's primary.

Primary (Direct) – Voters directly choose their party's candidate rather than delegates.

Primary (open) – Any registered voter may vote in either party's primary.

Primary (semi-closed) – Party members and independents may vote, but not members of the other party.

Primary (semi-open) – Voters can cross party lines but must publicly declare their party choice.

Primary Elections – Elections where voters choose each party's candidates for the general election.

Prior Restraint – Government censorship of material before it is published.

Privileges and Immunities Clause – Prevents states from discriminating against citizens of other states.

Project grants – Competitive federal grants awarded to specific applicants for specific projects.

Proportional Representation – An electoral system where seats are distributed based on percentage of votes won.

Public Opinion Polls – Surveys measuring the attitudes and preferences of a sample of the population.

Public policy – The decisions and actions taken by government to address public issues.

Public Polling – The process of surveying citizens to gauge opinion on issues or candidates.

Quorum – The minimum number of members needed to conduct official business (majority in Congress).

Random Sampling – Polling method where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Realigning election – An election that causes a major, lasting shift in party coalitions.

Reapportionment – Redistribution of House seats among states based on census results.

Recess appointment – Presidential appointment of an official while Congress is in recess, without Senate confirmation.

Red tape – Excessive bureaucratic rules and procedures that slow down government action.

Redistricting – Redrawing congressional district boundaries after the census.

Regulation – Government rules controlling the behavior of individuals or businesses.

Reprieves – Presidential power to delay punishment for a federal crime.

Republic – A system of government where citizens elect representatives to govern on their behalf.

Republican – A member of the Republican Party, generally favoring limited government and traditional values.

Reserved Powers – Powers kept by the states under the 10th Amendment.

Revenue Bills – Legislation that raises money through taxes; must originate in the House.

Roll-Call-Vote – A recorded vote where each member's individual vote is noted.

Rule of Four – The Supreme Court's practice of granting certiorari if at least four justices agree.

Safe states – States that reliably vote for one party in presidential elections.

Scorekeeper (media) – Media role of tracking who is winning or losing in politics.

Secretary of State – The head of the State Department and the president's chief foreign policy official.

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) – Independent agency regulating financial markets and protecting investors.

Select committee – A temporary congressional committee created for a specific investigation.

Selective incorporation – The process of applying Bill of Rights protections to states through the 14th Amendment.

Senate Judiciary Committee – Senate committee overseeing federal courts and confirming judicial nominees.

Sensationalism – Media practice of exaggerating stories to attract attention.

Separation of powers – The division of government authority among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Social Conservatism – A political stance favoring traditional social values and norms.

Social Liberalism – A political stance favoring individual freedoms and progressive social policies.

Social Security – Federal program providing retirement, disability, and survivor benefits.

Socialism – An economic system where the government owns or regulates major industries for collective benefit.

Soft money – Campaign money donated to political parties rather than directly to candidates (previously unregulated).

Sovereignty – Supreme authority to govern within a territory.

Speaker of the House – The leader of the House of Representatives with significant procedural and political powers.

Special committee – Another term for a select committee; temporary and focused on a specific task.

Split-ticket voting – Voting for candidates from different parties in the same election.

Standing Committee – A permanent congressional committee with ongoing jurisdiction over a policy area.

Stare Decisis – The legal doctrine of following precedent in court decisions.

State Department – Executive department responsible for foreign affairs and diplomacy.

Strict Constructionist – One who interprets the Constitution narrowly, limiting government to explicitly stated powers.

Suffrage – The right to vote.

Super PAC – An independent expenditure committee that can raise unlimited money but cannot coordinate with candidates.

Supremacy Clause – Establishes that the Constitution and federal law are the supreme law of the land.

Swing states – States where neither party has a dominant advantage; often decide presidential elections.

Take Care Clause – Constitutional provision requiring the president to faithfully execute the laws.

Tax (Flat) – A tax system where everyone pays the same percentage of income regardless of earnings.

Tax (Graduated Progressive) – A tax system with multiple brackets where higher earners pay higher rates.

Tax (Progressive) – A tax system where the rate increases as income increases.

Tax (Regressive) – A tax that takes a larger percentage of income from lower earners than higher earners.

Tea Party – A conservative populist movement within the Republican Party emphasizing limited government.

Third Party – Any political party other than the Democrats or Republicans.

Treaty Ratification – The Senate's power to approve or reject international treaties by a 2/3 vote.

Trial balloon – A policy idea leaked to the public to test reaction before officially proposing it.

Trustee model of Congressional Representation – The view that legislators should use their own judgment, not just follow constituents' wishes.

Two Party System – A political system dominated by two major parties.

Unalienable rights – Rights that cannot be taken away; listed in the Declaration of Independence as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

Unilateralism – Acting alone in foreign policy without seeking alliances or international cooperation.

Unitary System – A government where power is centralized in the national government.

US Court of Appeals – Federal appellate courts that review district court decisions.

USA Patriot Act – 2001 law expanding government surveillance powers in response to terrorism.

Vice President (powers) – Presides over the Senate, casts tie-breaking votes, and succeeds the president if necessary.

Virginia Plan – Constitutional proposal favoring large states with representation based on population.

Voter Turnout – The percentage of eligible voters who actually vote in an election.

Voting Rights Act of 1965 – Law prohibiting discriminatory voting practices and protecting minority voting rights.

War Powers Resolution – 1973 law limiting the president's ability to commit troops abroad without congressional approval.

Watchdog (media) – Media role of investigating and exposing government corruption or wrongdoing.

Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 – Federal law setting standards to reduce water pollution.

Welfare Reform Act – 1996 law replacing traditional welfare with a work-based system (TANF).

White House Chief of Staff – The president's top aide managing the White House operations.

White House Staff – The group of aides and advisors working directly for the president.

Winner-Take-All System – An electoral system where the candidate with the most votes wins everything (e.g., Electoral College in most states).

Writ of Certiorari – An order from the Supreme Court agreeing to review a lower court's decision.

Writ of habeas corpus – A legal order requiring the government to justify holding a person in custody.

Writ of mandamus – A court order compelling a government official to perform a required duty.