Change and Transformation in Indian Society; Factors affecting National Integration: Casteism and Politics of caste in India, Communalism and Politics
1. Change and Transformation in Indian Society
India is a country of ancient civilisation with rural and urban centres co-existing since the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Indian villages can be traced far back in history, creating a sense of timelessness and continuity. However, Indian society has also undergone significant transformations over time.
The evolution of village communities illustrates this change, moving from primitive village communities based on kinship and collectivism to medieval village communities influenced by the feudal system, and finally to modern village communities where kinship ties have weakened and land is no longer collectively cultivated.
Social organisation of villages has also seen changes. The caste system and joint family system are traditionally strong features, but both have experienced transformations.
Villagers have started adopting occupations different from their traditional caste-based ones.
Untouchability has lost some effectiveness.
Joint families are gradually disintegrating, and the control of senior members has declined.
The economic system in villages has changed with the use of better agricultural inputs and educated rural youth seeking jobs in cities.
The marriage system has also evolved, with an increase in love marriages and inter-caste marriages, greater choice in mate selection, and the abolition of child marriage.
The Jajmani system has weakened due to socio-economic changes and governmental efforts to raise the status of lower castes.
M.N. Srinivas's concepts of Sanskritization and Westernization highlight the dynamism in Indian society and how lower castes try to improve their status by adopting the customs of higher castes, while Westernization brings changes due to contact with British culture.
Dipankar Gupta argues that agriculture is no longer the mainstay of the rural economy, and caste is not the sole determinant of social status.
2. Factors Affecting National Integration
Cultural Diversity: India's numerous cultures, languages, and traditions are a significant factor influencing national integration.
Religious Pluralism: The co-existence of multiple religions in India necessitates inter-religious harmony for national integration.
Regionalism: Stronger identification with one's region over the nation can be a challenge to national integration, stemming from India's geographical size and regional disparities.
Linguistic Diversity: While language is a strong marker of identity and can be a source of conflict, the promotion of multilingualism with 22 official languages contributes to national integration.
Socio-economic Disparities: Inequalities can hinder national integration. Policies promoting social justice and equal opportunities are essential.
Education: An inclusive curriculum fostering tolerance and understanding of India's diverse heritage can nurture a sense of national belonging.
Media and Communication: These influence public opinion and can foster understanding and dialogue, contributing to or detracting from national integration.
Political Leadership: Leaders have a responsibility to promote national unity and avoid divisive politics based on religion, caste, or region.
Historical Factors: Events like colonialism, partition, and social movements have shaped national identity and continue to influence integration.
Social Cohesion Initiatives: Efforts from the government and civil society that promote inter-community dialogue and cultural exchange are crucial.
3. Casteism and Politics of caste in India
The caste system is a unique form of social stratification in India, derived from the Portuguese word 'casta' meaning lineage or breed.
In India, 'caste' refers to both Varna (the four-fold functional division of Hindu society: Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) and Jati (hereditary endogamous status groups practising specific occupations). There are over 3,000 Jatis in India.
Features of the caste system include:
Segmental division of society: Caste divides society into distinct, hereditary groups.
Hierarchical division of society: Castes are ranked in a hierarchy based on notions of purity and pollution.
Restrictions on marriage (endogamy): Marriage is typically confined within the same caste.
Lack of choice of occupation: Traditionally, occupation was determined by caste.
Civil and religious disabilities and privileges: Different castes historically faced different restrictions and enjoyed varying privileges.
Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse: Rules governed interactions between members of different castes.
The caste system has undergone changes:
Decreased rigidity of untouchability.
Changes in commensal rules (rules about eating together).
Changes in marriage rules, with increasing inter-caste marriages.
Growth of classes within castes, indicating economic differentiation.
Increased caste and occupational mobility, although not complete.
The political role of caste has become significant.
Politics of caste in India:
Caste has become a means to attain specific goals in politics.
It is used for seeking reservation in educational institutions and government services.
Political parties sometimes divide people on party lines, especially during elections.
Dominant castes in villages often wield significant numerical, economic, and political power, acting as reference models and power holders.
The Dalit movement arose to challenge the injustices of the caste system, particularly untouchability.
Dalits, historically known as "untouchables", faced systematic exploitation.
The movement aimed at cleansing Hinduism of injustice and establishing a socio-cultural framework free from caste dominance.
The adoption of the term "Dalit" rejected the stigma of being "polluted".
Some Dalits embraced Buddhism as a way to create a more egalitarian society.
Other Backward Classes (OBCs) are other backward social groups who have not experienced untouchability but are socially and educationally disadvantaged. They consist of many castes engaged in different traditional occupations and are also a significant factor in the politics of caste in India.
4. Communalism and Politics of communalism
Communalism can be defined as a political doctrine that uses religious and cultural differences to achieve political ends. It is also described as a social phenomenon characterised by the religion of two communities, often leading to tension and conflict.
As an ideology, communalism involves:
Total commitment to a set of beliefs, often religiously based.
Being far from rationality.
Committing oneself to the community alone.
Unwillingness to accept other belief patterns and faiths.
Being closed off and highly emotional about one's own community, sometimes to the extent of breaking the law.
Features of Communalism include:
It is an ideological concept based on prejudice.
It has a broad base encompassing social, economic, and political aspects.
It causes rivalry and violence among the public.
It can be used by elites for division and exploitation.
It undermines secularism and national integration.
Causes of Communalism:
Formation of political parties and organisations based on religion.
Orthodoxy and obscurantism.
Organised and militant fundamentalist organisations.
Poor economic conditions leading to competition and resentment.
Geographical causes and concentration of religious groups.
Misrepresentation of historical evidence to create division.
Psychological causes such as insecurity and fear.
Failure of the government machinery to prevent and address communal tensions.
Lack of strong and effective inter-community relations.
Politics of communalism:
Political parties may exploit religious identities for electoral gains, leading to the politicisation of religious differences.
This can result in discrimination against religious groups in employment, education, commerce, and politics.
Communal ideologies can be used to mobilise religious groups for political purposes, sometimes leading to conflict and undermining national unity.
5. Naxalism
Naxalism is a term derived from the village Naxalbari in West Bengal, where a rebellion originated in 1967 over a land dispute.
The movement aimed for the rightful redistribution of land to working peasants, landless labourers, and Adivasis.
Naxalism is considered to support Maoist political sentiments and ideology, which advocates capturing state power through armed insurgency, mass mobilisation, and strategic alliances.
The movement has spread across Eastern India, particularly in less developed areas of states like Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh.
Causes of Naxalism in India:
Easy recruitment of individuals lacking a source of living.
Perceived lack of initiative from state governments in addressing the issue.
Lack of industrialisation, poor infrastructure, and unemployment leading to disparity.
Failure of administration to provide essential services.
Socio-economic inequalities affecting the poor and deprived.
Tribal discontent due to marginalisation and displacement.
Steps taken by the government against Naxalism:
Operation Green Hunt (started in 2010) involved the deployment of security forces.
A 'Relief and Rehabilitation Policy' was initiated to bring Naxalites into the mainstream.
Arrests and killings of key Naxal leaders.
The Aspirational Districts Programme (launched in 2018) aims to improve progress in key social areas in affected districts.
Continuous efforts have led to a reduction in violent attacks.