Heimler AP World Review
Units 1/2=everything until 1450, Units 3/4=1450-1750, Units 5/6=1750-1900ish, Units 7/8/9 = 1900-present
UNIT 1
Song China maintained and justified its rule through Confucianism and an imperial bureaucracy
Continuity: Buddhism continued to shape China’s society.
Song economy flourished during this period.
State building in Song China
Confucianism: philosophical understanding of the world that is hierarchical
Continuity: carried over from the Tong dynasty
Revival during this period, expansion of civil service examination (order, stability, meritocracy!)
Imperial bureaucracy: appointed officials carrying out the empire’s policies
Continuity: existed for centuries, Song China expanded on it + consolidated power through it.
Buddhism: result of outside influence, from India via the Silk Roads (unit 2)
Innovation in China: Chan Buddhism, melding it with traditional Chinese ideas like Daoism.
Cultural diffusion, Chan Buddhism spread throughout neighboring regions
Song economy flourished
Champa rice!!!!! Came in from the Champa kingdom in Vietnam. Could be harvested more than once a year.
Grand Canal: waterway, transportation system, made Song China one of the most populated trading center in the world.
commercialization of the Song Economy
As the Abassid Caliphate was falling apart, new Islamic political entities emerged, and they engaged in significant expansion, while creating the occasion for intellectual innovations and transfers
rise of Delhi Sultanate (northern India)
Mamluk Sultanate (around Egypt)
both of these are examples of diversity in state building
Change: they were turkic islamic empires instead of Arab
Continuities: ways to govern
Dar al-Islam
Spreading Islam
military expansion
merchants
ideas being spread. in Africa: created literate officials, in the states it created religious legitimacy
the sufis: mystical Islam
better able to spread: able to adapt to local cultures
Innovations
algebra, trig, literature
intellectual transfers: Muslims in Spain translated Greek classics into Arabic (preserved works to be rediscovered during the Renaissance)
India mathmatics to Euros, adopted/adapted paper making from China, later transferred into Europe (later helped to spread European ideas via the printing press)
Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam deeply influenced state building in South and Southeast Asia
South Asia
Delhi Sultanate, in the north of the subcontinent it was an Islamic state. Majority were Hindus
some converted, Hindus who didn’t had to pay a jizya tax.
Conversions were about social mobility (lower →upper castes)
never really maintained efficient bureaucracy (never able to fully consolidate power over India
Vijayanagara Empire
Hindu kingdom
Southeast Asia
very instrumental in trade
merchants introduced Hinduism and Buddhism
became the basis for the empires and kingdoms
Srivijaya Empire
ended 1025
it was Hindu. prospered by taxing ships
Majapahit Kingdom
Buddhist, prospered the same way
Continuity: in how these religions shape societies
Change: religions changed/shaped these empires in different ways
The various civilizations of the Americas developed strong states, large urban centers, and complex belief systems.
Examples: Cahokia, Mexica, Inca
Focus: the Aztecs
originally the Mexica people
Continuity with earlier American states, esp the Mayans
Tenochtitlan: massive marketplaces and population very big, urban center
tribute system!
as they expanded, local governors sent to extract tribute from conquered peoples
could exercise political dominance in distance lands w/o being directly involved.
legitimize and consolidate power
decentralized state (continuity from the Mayas)
another continuity: practice of human sacrifice
African state building was facilitated by the participation in trade networks and religion.
great Zimbabwe
prospered bc of trade, agriculture, and gold
Continuity: participated in Indian Ocean trade network
connected them to East Africa, Middle East, South/Souteast Asia
Change: development of Swahili (Bantu+Arabic) because of interaction with Islamic merchants
Ethiopia
Christian! emerged in 12th century
built lots of monumental architecture
those in authority putting their power on display
their Christianity developed apart from Roman Catholic/Orthodox, was unique
State building in Europe was characterized by religious belief, feudalism, and decentralized monarchies.
Religion was very significant in state building.
Continuity: Roman Catholic Church
universities/artists usually men of the church
Diversity: strong Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula
many ejected during Reconquista
small, relatively influential Jewish population
decentralized political systems
feudalism= organized society in a particular way (kings to lords to knights to peasantry)
manorial system: manor contained the whole village. peasants’ entire lives were on the manor
agriculture
3 field system: crops rotated through three fields, massive deal (more food, more people)
UNIT 2
Networks of exchange expanded in geographical scope and led to the increasing interactions between states.
3 trade networks
Silk Roads: mainly luxury goods, traded for elite markets, especially Silk
cities along the route grew in power and prominence (Samarkand)
growth of commerce along road facilitated by new technologies (caravenserai=rest stops; yokes,saddles,and stirrups=easier travel;money economies)
money economies=paper money. lot lighter, greatly increased trade. New forms of credit (also Chinese model) banking houses
Indian Ocean network
up till 1500, world’s most significant trade network
growth why?
desire for foreign goods (ie Chinese porcelain, India spices/pepper, spices from Southeast Asia)
technological innovations (lateen sails, magnetic compass, astrolabe, new ship designs(Chinese junks, Arab dows))
spread of Islam
created connections, friendly relations throughout merchants
growth of Swahili city-states in eastern Africa
like middle-men facilitating trade from African interior to other merchants
goods from Africa being exported in these city-states: gold, ivory, slaves
Malacca sultanate
controlled Strait of Malacca, rapidly grew thanks to trade
effects
diasporic communities!!! settlements created by people living apart from their homeland, keeping their culture
Arab/persian in East Africa, Chinese in SE Asia
helped facilitate trade by created those necessary connections that encourage those economic relationships
cultural/tech transfer
voyages of Zheng He during the Ming Dynasty (was supposed to enroll communities throughout Indian Ocean and enroll them in the Chinese tribute system. result: China increased power and influence over this specific trade network)
trans-Saharan trade
grew due to innovations of transportation, strategic positions, same as other two basically.
Arabian camel and the saddle; further increased inter-regional trade and expanded geographical range of existing trade routes
By 12th c. new empires rising in Africa, influenced growth of trade
Mali
Islam introduced here in 9th century
1200-1450: the faith connected them commercially to Muslim merchants across Afro Eurasia
chief figure: Mansa Musa
expansion of Mali’s power under his influence, he was able to further monopolize trade between North and interior of the continent
increased his wealth and facilitated growth of existing trade networks
A major effect of the growth of trading routs was cultural diffusion.
Religion and belief systems
Buddhism entered China from its origin in India via Silk Roads, later exported to Japan & adopted as Zen Buddhism
Hinduism and Buddhism in Southeast Asia (in U1 Big Idea #3)
Islam in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia as a result of trade and conquest
Swahili (blend of language and that language later facilitated trade)
Timbuktu in Mali (became international center for Islamic education
South Asia: Islam impact w/ arrival of Delhi Sultanate
Scientific/Technological innovations
Champa rice from Vietnam
increasing interconnection led to rise/fall of many cities
Rise: Samarkand along the Silk Road.
center of Islamic scholarship and cultural flourishing thanks to their positioning along roads
Fall: Baghdad.
Mongols in contact with Abbasid Empire in the east. Laid waste to the city in 1258
led to significant period of decline in the once-vigorous city
interconnection also facilitated travels and travelers
Ibn Battuta, Margery Kempe, Marco Polo
Ibn Battuta!!
He was a 14th-century Moroccan explorer whose journeys spanned much of the Islamic world and beyond, encompassing regions across North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia.
Muslim scholar
in the course of 30 years traveled all over Dar al-Islam
wrote detailed notes about the Islamic world
travels were made possible because of the trade routes and the interconnection of the world.
The increasing interconnection facilitated by trading routes (or networks of exchange) led to significant environmental consequences
Spread of crops
Bananas in Africa
originally domesticated in Southeast Asia
introduced to Africa thanks to Indian Ocean trade
led to the rise of power chiefdoms and larger kingdoms
same story with Champa Rice!!!!
Spread of disease
increasing connectivity created the occasion for the very deadly disease of..
Bubonic Plague AKA The Black Death
Mongols created the largest land-based empire in history, which facilitated further interconnection and interactions across Afro-Eurasia
Mongols: understand how they created the condition for increased interaction among distant states and cultural/tech transfers that came about as a result.
Once they took over the big landmass, they did it through..
facilitated trade due to political control of the lands on which the networks of exchange existed on
Silk Road traditionally works best when big empires controlled the routes
can provide safety, continuity along the roads
Mongols encouraged international trade
extracted great wealth as facilitators of the commerce
led to unprecedented increase in communication and cooperation across Eurasia
Persian/Chinese courts cooperated across great distance by
sending skilled artisans back n forth
exchanging ambassadors
sharing military intelligence
tech/culture transfers
transfer of people encouraged transfer of technology and allat
advances in astronomy and astronomical tools
increased accuracy of calendars, improved astrolabe
can now predict eclipses
UNIT 3
Various land-based empires developed and expanded throughout 1450-1750, most significantly through the use of gunpowder.
Gunpowder!!! chief means by which these empires were able to expand/consolidate power, all of it!!
Ottoman Empire
founded in the 14th century, very small
grew significantly thanks to the adoption of gunpowder weapons
by 1402: lot of Southwestern Europe was under their control
1453: Ottomans sacked Constantinople → Istanbul
also able to expand because of their military (Janissaries, enslaved Christians converted to Islam through the devshirme)
Safavid Empire
Middle East, established in 1501 under the leadership of Shah Ismael was made into a theocratic state where Shi'a Islam became the state religion, differentiating it from its Sunni neighbors (Mughals and Ottomans)
Shah Abbas built up their military + gunpowder
established an enslaved army as well
Mughal Empire
South/Central Asia
1526: Babur established the empire by displaing the Delhi Sultanate
accomplished through gunpowder.
Babur’s grandson Akbar: Mughal Empire covered half of the India subcontinent
tolerant of religious beliefs, good at administering his empire overall good guy
Qing Dynasty
Mongol power declining rapidly, New dynasty in China established (Ming after Mongols)
by early 1500s, Ming dynasty weakened due to internal divisions, external wars
1636: Manchu people of the north raided China and established the Qing
majority of Chinese pop. was Han but the Qing rulers were Manchu!
causes lots of tension later
Rivalries between these growing land-based empires
Safavid-Mughal conflict
Middle East, series of wars between the Muslim empires in the 17th century
conflicting territorial ambitions and religious beliefs
Shia vs Sunni Muslims
led to decades-long civil wars
Songhai-Moroccan conflict
Rulers of land-based empires gained power and maintained control by establishing bureaucracies, sponsoring the creation of art, centralizing tax collection, and developing large militaries.
Legitimize power=methods used by rulers to communicate who’s in charge
Consolidate power=methods used to transfer power from other groups to a single ruler (or small handful of folks)
Formation of large bureaucracies
Ottomans: devshirme system to staff imperial bureaucracy w/ highly trained individuals
Development of military professionals
Ottoman Janissaries (also devshirme)
Japan Tokugawa shogunate: ancient warrior class of the samurais → on government payroll; became both salaried warriors and bureaucrats.
Religious ideas, art, monumental architecture
kings/monarchs in Europe
claimed to rule by divine right (Divine Right of Kings); they were representatives of God on earth
Louis XIV of France
Palace of Versailles, forced French nobility to live there so he could control them; more power to the king (consolidation of power)
Aztecs
human sacrifice rituals; rulers put on massive displays of wealth (legitimizing power)
Inca Empire
sun temple at Cuzco; facilitated festivals of worship
Machu Picchu, Peru
Qing Emperor Kangxi
used art to consolidate power
Qing were Manchu (remember), diff ethnicity than majority of the population
portraits displayed throughout the empire (prominent places) (basically a PR campaign)
Tax collection systems
Mughal Empire
Zamindar tax collection system
system carried out by the Zamindars (elite land owners granted w/ authority to tax peasants living on their land on behalf of imperial govt.)
leaders were Muslim, ruled over majority Hindu pop.
Ottoman Empire
similar tax collection system
tax farming: the right to tax people on behalf of the empire went to the highest bidder
Belief systems could play different roles in and among land-based empires. In some cases, shared beliefs bound people together. In other cases, conflicting beliefs caused conflict.
Beliefs systems In Europe
Christianity since the 1st century, shared cultural belief among the continent
16th century: Protestant Reformation
fundamental breakdown of said unity
began in 1517, Martin Luther denounced the corruption of the Catholic Church through the 95 Theses
spread like fire due to the recent advent of the printing press
major split in Christianity (Roman Catholics vs. Protestants)
Resulted is that various rulers throughout Europe either remained Catholic or they imposed Protestantism
religious division intensified political division
series of religious wars in Europe until 1648 (Thirty Years’ War → Peace of Westphalia)
Catholic Church responds w/ Catholic Reformation (aka Counterreformation)
introduced tons of reforms, marked a significant change
Continuity: Counsel of Trent, the Catholics reaffirmed their ancient doctrines of salvation through faith, good works, nature of biblical authority
but addressed issues within the Church like indulgences and clerical abuses
made split between Catholics and Protestants permanent
Sunni/Shia split in Islam
intensified tensions between Mughal, Safavid, and Ottomans
Sometimes the interaction of belief systems produced new belief systems
Sikhism in South Asia
syncretic blend of Hindu and Islamic doctrines
through blending → whole new faith, different from the other two
UNIT 4
New and updated maritime technology facilitated transoceanic trade and the development of sea-based empires
Maritime empires = sea-based empires!!
Europeans borrowing from classical Islamic/Asian worlds
astrolabe (borrowed from Greeks/Muslims), magnetic compass (from China), lateen sail (from Mediterranean trade network)
Europeans innovating for themselves
ship design: Portuguese caravel, Dutch fluyt, and Spanish galleon enhanced their capabilities for transoceanic voyages.
Caravel= small, nimble, navigable, really fast, square/lateen sails
decent sized cargo holes → Portuguese trade dominance
Fluyt= big trading ship, metric buttload of cargo space, enabled Dutch VOC (Dutch East India Company) to dominate trade on the Indian Ocean
European state-sponsored exploration led to a big expansion of trade and trans-Atlantic contact with the Americas
Reasons that states sponsored exploration
Wealth-building, spread of Christianity, competition with other states
Gold, God, & Glory!!
Wealth-building
European states wanted access to lucrative India Ocean trade
problem: Muslim empires controlled land-based routes between Europe and China and Southeast Asia
sought ways to get over there via ships
Spreading Christianity
European states tended to tie Christianity very tightly to their political structure → strong impulse to spread religion
Glory, competition w/ other states
chief mechanisms of this = mercantalism
“if this is the way global dominance can be had, no one can really afford to fall behind,” thus a race to make strides towards all those empires
First big mover: Portuguese
established a trading post empire all around Africa and into the Indian Ocean
not traditional empire; made up of small strategically-located trading posts all around the African coast and Indian Ocean
not establishing traditional colonies; setting up trade posts
goal: to possess a complete monopoly over the spice trade
they came pretty close, did pretty well (in the beginning)
Spain, aka challenger #2
monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella saw the control of the Portuguese
sponsored Christopher Columbus and sent him west (or he himself did with their money)
seeking a new water route to facilitate Spain’s participation in the Asia spice trade
effect of all this: dramatically increased interest in transatlantic sailing
from Columbus finding two new giant continents (the New World), English, French, and Dutch began sponsoring explorers to sail west to find the sea route to Asia
The Columbian Exchange was the transfer of animals, plants, foods, and diseases from Europe to the Americas, and vice versa. As a result of new contact, Europeans sought to colonize the Americas.
crop examples
Americas → Europe: potatoes, maize
Europe → Americas: wheat, rice
huge impact in world history: Afro-Eurasian populations began to expand their diet, made them overall healthier → increased their lifespan → led to a population increase (more food, more people)
transfer of animals
Americas → Europe: turkeys, llamas
Europe → Americas: cattle, pigs, horses
similar effects: expansion of diets, revolutionizing agriculture
spread of disease
mostly Europe → the Americas
many: most significant= smallpox
devastated the indigenous populations of the Americas
+ measles = incredibly deadly
Europeans colonizing the Americas
Portuguese colonized Brazil
focused on agriculture mainly, raising of cash crops (especially sugarcane; tropical climate, lots of land)
initially forced indigenous population into coerced labor to cultivate the sugarcane
so many diseased decimated the populations, thus they are not able to continue the work
increased/spikes the demand for enslaved labor from Africa
similar w/ the Spanish colonies
With transoceanic contact established, European states established empires fueled by mercantilist economic policy and coerced labor systems.
Europe and Africa
Portuguese established their trading post empire around Africa
Africans perceived them as intruders; some African kingdoms grew as a result of the contact (ie the Asante Empire)
new maritime empires
as a result of so many more states sponsoring exploration
British: take over India, established trading posts under the authority of the British East India Company
they take advantage of the growing tension between Muslims and Hindus
their political influence grows until the British East India Company had control over much/most of the Indian subcontinent
Spain
when in the Americas, came in contact with the Aztec and Inca empires
empires quickly collapsed when the Spanish attacked
mainly due to their population having been ravaged by the diseases that came in with the Columbian Exchange
competition between colonial powers over who was getting what land
sometimes ended in a diplomatic resolution
Spain and Portugal: signed Treaty of Tortesillas
essentially divided up the Americas; Portugal got the western part of Brazil while Spain got the eastern part
Spain initially came into Americas and began by plundering the land for gold, silver, and precious metals
most significant wealth lay in agriculture
organized entire colonial economy based on agriculture
encomienda system: coercive labor system used to compel indigenous people to work their plantations
hacienda system: paid laborers low wages while their debts remained very high
still interest in silver
Spanish imperial government transformed the mita system (pulled over from the Inca)
Inca: all the people work for the state for a certain number of days per year
Spanish: turned it into a system of coerced labor (young men forced to work in dangerous silver mines)
importance of mercantilism in this first wave of imperialism
mercantalisim: dominant economic system that characterized a lot of European states at this time
it looked at the world’s wealth as if it was a pie (because it measures wealth in terms of gold and silver); limited amount that any one state could have
big motivation for getting colonies is to enrich the homeland
drove Spanish efforts to mine silver; in order to become ascendant on the world’s stage
enslaved labor systems, African laborers
Europeans turned to Africa because of the dying off of indigenous pop.
plantation economy of the Americas grew, and the demand for enslaved people from Africa
effect: century-long population decline in some African states
Africans also affected the societies of the Americas
shaped/enriched language, culture(w/ food like okra, their language, and religious beliefs)
The development of maritime empires over time significantly changed the economies and societies in which they were established
joint stock companies (Dutch, English, French)
big deals: allowed continues exploration/colonization w/ limited risks to investors
economic disputes, rivalries
Moroccan conflict w Songhai empire
Portuguese invading Morocco, and they took care of them pretty quickly, but left the Moroccans broke
traveled to invade Songhai empire, successful
hard to maintain power and control across the whole desert and eventually that state crumbled
Triangular Trade
Europe to Africa to the Caribbean/Americas
manufactured goods from Europe to West Africa for enslaved people who were then transported to the Americas for raw materials (sugar, molasses) that were then transported back to Europe
longer this went on, more interdependent these distant states became (economically upon e/o)
Religion: how societies changed
as religion spread into new territories, two common responses/reactions
syncretism
taking two different things and making them one, but that one thing is different than either of the other two things (syncing them)
blending of indigenous religions of the Americas with the Christianity/Catholic Christianity brought over by Spanish/Portuguese etc
new belief systems in Americas
conflict
Sunni/Shia religious divide of Muslims
intensified divide between Ottoman and Safavid empires, led to wars
As states imposed their cultural, political, and economic will on various colonized and enslaved people, resistance occurred.
Maratha Rebellion
Mughal empire/rulers Muslim, Indian South Asian subcontinent majority Hindu
group of Hindu warriors called the Maratha rebelled against what they perceived as an invasion of their beliefs
ultimately brought the Mughal Empire to an end
Mughal Empire replaced → Maratha Empire
Pueblo Revolt
Spanish colonies of North America, where Pueblo and Apache Indians lived
Spanish wanted to spread Christianity
Pueblo and Apache rose up and killed hundreds of Spaniards/priests, they burned churches
Social categories, roles, and practices were both maintained and underwent significant change during this period.
Qing Dynasty
established by Machu, not Han
retained some distinctively Chinese institutions
civil service exam, bureaucracy
imposed restrictive policies against the native Han Chinese
made them wear their hair in certain ways that were not traditional for them
Spanish casta system
new social hierarchy system imposed by Spanish
organized society based on ancestry and race
not at all how society was organized before
UNIT 5
New ways of thinking embodies in the Enlightenment created the occasion for reform and revolution
Enlightenment: European movement, shifted the locus of knowledge from religious belief → empirical data and observation
important Enlightenment beliefs
concept of natural rights
monarchs don’t give people their rights, the creator does
social contract
people have the right to govern themselves, government exists by the people’s consent
if the people don’t consent, they can change the government
legitimate political authority relies on the collective will of the people
two big thinkers (examples) + others Heimler didn’t mention
Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Locke
Rousseau: advocated for the Social Contract
Locke: promoted ideas of natural rights, notion that government should protect life, liberty, and property, with the authority resting on the consent of the governed.
Immanuel Kant
German, believed in freedom of the press as a means to exercise reason publicly
Voltaire
deist, wrote against religious intolerance
Descartes
reasoning of human being; importance of logic/reasoning in understanding the physical world
effects of the enlightenment
led to reform movements
movements for women’s suffrage (right to vote)
Senica Falls Convetion 1848 in the U.S.
call for equal rights to women, especially right of women to vote
movement for abolitionism (end of slavery)
beginning in the early 1800s: slave trade is banned in many states
Russia: serfdom is abolished in 1861
The ideas of the Enlightenment, combined with rising nationalism, led to various revolutions throughout the world.
nationalism: people’s sense of belonging to each other
based on common language/religion/social customs/state/territory
American Revolution
Enlightenment ideals in the Declaration of Independence
growing sense of nationalism due to repressive British colonial policies, especially taxes
by 1783: United States of America formally recognized as an independent nation (Treaty of Paris)
French, Haitian, LatAm revolutions
inspired by the American revolutions (or each other)
mixture of Enlightenment thought and growing sense of nationalism
documents that exhibit Enlightenment thought
U.S. Declaration of Independence
French Declaration of the rights of man and citizen
Simon Bolivar’s letter from Jamaica
liberty, democracy, and advocated for freedom in Latin America
The industrial revolution began in Britain and would eventually transform the world.
IR was essentially a change in how stuff was made for sale
no longer handmade, now being made by machines
Began in Great Britain
proximity to waterways; helped transport materials
raw materials needed for this particular form of manufacturing
coal, iron, and timber
urbanization was occurring thanks to the Enclosure Movement
improved agricultural productivity
crop rotation and new technologies (ie seed drill)
rise of the factory system
initially powered by the water frame, then steam engines
factories were able to mass-produce goods
much faster and cheaper
first a focus on textiles, clothing
marked a shift (change) in the way labor was done
specialization of labor; rise of unskilled laborers dominating the market
they don’t have crafts like artisans did in the previous period
As western industrialization spread, Middle Eastern and Asian countries’ share in global manufacturing declined.
ccot: before, during silk road, asian countries were producing more
now, bc of industrialization, Europeans are doing most of the manufacturing (mass-producing)
spread → continental Europe → the U.S. → Japan → Russia
United States
massive amount of immigration to urban centers
had more than enough human capital it needed in order to industrialize
transcontinental railroads
Russia
construction of trans-Siberian railroad
connected the culture and economy of the state
similar/compare to U.S.
Japan
also embraced industrialization (outlier in that area of the world)
industrialized defensively
to protect the domestic and cultural institutions so they wouldn’t be taken over by Western powers
Meiji Restoration
entire shift meant a change in the previous states that had control over manufacturing
shares of global manufacturing were diminishing
Indian textile industry decreasing
India = British colony; threatening British industrialists
British colonial government pressured to impose taxes on the Indian textiles
The advent of new technologies fundamentally changed the landscape of manufacturing.
first industrial revolution= 1750s to 1830s
majored in textiles
second industrial revolution= 1830s to 1920s
main material is steel
difference between first/second IRs: power source
first: steam engine, coal powering said engine
locomotives, factories powered by steam
second: internal combustion engine, powered by oil
fossil fuel revolution
increased energy available for humans to use
other technologies
railroads (transcontinental in Russia/U.S.
united large landmasses and societies into a single economy
regional markets into truly national economies
consolidated colonial power
Cecil Roads (British in Africa); imperialists trying to link all British holdings in Africa
telegraph
huge leap forward in communication technology
made communication instantaneous over long distances
further fueled the industrial revolution
Significant economic shifts occurred during this period including the rise of free-market capitalism, transnational businesses, and increased standards of living.
during IR: western European nations begin abandoning mercantilism as an economic system
replaced with free market capitalism
Adam Smith and publication of his book The Wealth of Nations
argued governments should be lasséz-faire about their economic policies (basically govt. should have its hands off of the economy)
wants govt. to let consumers make their own choices through the forces of supply+demand
mercantilism was a state-heavy economic system
states that adopted this new economic system grew more wealthy (like Smith predicted)
rise of transnational corporations
companies that operate across national boundaries
Unilever Corporation
British and Dutch venture, focused on household goods, especially soap
by 1890: soap factories in Australia, Switzerland, the U.S.
increased standards of living
more goods being produced = goods can be sold at lower prices = more people are able to afford them
rise of the middle class
distinct from upper and lower classes
As industrialization spread, it created the occasion for some states to enact reforms
industrialization causing problems mostly for the working/lower class
rise of labor unions
factory workers organizing due to bad working conditions
long hours, dangerous conditions, low pay
gathering together for the sake of collective bargaining
in many places they won
minimum wage laws, right to work shorter days, right to overtime pay, five-day work week
Karl Marx
disliked/ had a problem with industrial capitalism
believed that capitalism and its entrenched class structure was ruining the world
his (+ Friedrich Engles) solution laid out in Communist Manifesto
two classes: proletariat (working class) and the bourgeoisie (people who own the means of production)
argued that with the proletariat working for the bourgeoisie, they’re never going to get rich
the bourgeoisie can only grow and get wealthier on the backs of the proletariat
his solution: world needed to go through a period of socialism then (eventually) → communism
society defined by equality without classes
most famous critic of industrial capitalism
Ottoman Empire
Tanzimat reforms: reforms made to industrialize the empire
they could feel tension of encroaching western world
somewhat effective, ultimately didn’t keep western world from intruding
wanted to eliminate corruption from the government
UNIT 6
Various ideologies contributed to the growing development of imperialism in the period 1750-1900.
effect of IR: new wave of empire building, mainly Europeans
ideas driving this new wave of empire building
cultural ideologies
belief in the superiority of the white race (Kipling’s White Man’s Burden poem)
social darwinism: strong states eat weak states
desire to spread Christianity
nationalist motives
desire for powerful states to declare themselves the greatest on the world stage
done through building the bigger empires
Britain taking over India
France gathering up African colonies
Japan: Meiji Restoration
modernized their military and colonized Korea after beating China in the Sino-Japanese war
economic motives
more colonies for new markets and for access to more raw materials (to feed into their machines)
Imperial states employed different means of consolidating power in their empires and expanding their empires.
non-state to state control of colonies
the Congo
began as a private colony owned by the Belgian king, Leopold II ← he was super brutal
brutal policies enacted in the Congo created international pressure to transfer the colony directly to the authority of the Belgian state
eventually happened
India
originally controlled by the British East India Company
increasing corruption, harsh policies
Sepoy Rebellion (aka Indian mutiny of 1857 aka Indian rebellion)
effect: British government took direct control of the colony
new imperial powers replacing old imperial powers
before: Spanish and Portuguese top of the imperial game
now: losing power in Asia/Southeast Asia
United States
now a big player in imperialism as a result of the Spanish-American War
1898: U.S. expanded into the pacific (specifically: the Philippines, which was previously a Spanish colony)
Japan
expanded into Korea, parts of China, Southeast Asia, some Pacific Islands
Russia
czars expanded into Poland, other Eastern European countries, parts of the Middle East, and parts of China
“scramble for africa”
way that colonial powers consolidated their power
continent highly desirable because of massive amounts of raw materials
tensions and competition, they all want a piece of the African pie
Otto von Bismarck of German calls for the Berlin conference
imperial powers peacefully, diplomatically carved up Africa among themselves through diplomacy
The new wave of imperialism during this period led to new waves of resistance from colonized peoples.
many different types of reactions
direct resistance
Peru
indigenous leader Tupac Amaru grew tired of Spanish atrocities in Peru, led rebellion
rebellion against Spanish authorities
ultimately crushed violently by the Spanish
India
Sepoy Mutiny
creation of new states
Balkans
southwestern Europe
previously under Ottoman control (for a long time)
in the Balkans- tons of different ethnicities; wave of nationalism
inspired many to fight for indepedence
new sovereign nations: Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria
imperial expansion religiously inspired rebellions
U.S. Ghost Dance movement
American expansion into the western part of the continent → clashes w/ indigenous groups
started in the Northwest
prophecy: performing a ritual dance called the ghost dance would awaken their ancestral dead, then they would all join together and fight to expel the white settlers from their lands
led to a series of wars between the U.S and the various indigenous groups
US military ultimately crushed rebellion
Xhosa Cattle killing movement
south Africa
The growing need for imperial powers to extract raw materials and increase the food supply transformed the global economy.
many went from subsistence farmers → cash crop farming
subsistence farming: growing the food you need to survive
cash crop farming: selling crops for export
coffee, rubber, sugar, etc
Uruguay and Argentina
cattle ranching became big business to satisfy European and American desires for beef
Peru and Chile
began to specialize in guano (bird poop) extraction; used for fertilizer
sub-Big Idea: colonial economies were transformed to increasingly serve the needs of urban centers that were far away from where they were, in the imperial hubs, and not the needs of the colonial peoples themselves
so many cash crops
cotton, rubber, sugar, coffee, palm oil
Industrialized states and businesses within those states practiced economic imperialism primarily in Asia and Latin America.
economic imperialism: situation where one country wields significant economic power over another country
Britain and China
in general European powers but specifically GB
Opium Wars
happened bc there was a significant trade deficit between China and Britain
Britain didn’t like that → began smuggling lots of opium into China
Chinese leaders banned opium and destroyed huge amount of opium shipments
British retaliated → opium wars
British end up winning because of their superior industrial capacity
result: Britain forced China to open various trading ports to the Brits; forced a free trade agreement among them
China carved up into “spheres of influence”
imperial powers wanting a piece of China: Japan, France, Germany, Russia, U.S.
each had exclusive trading rights with China within their respective spheres
imperial powers organized economies of their various holdings to give themselves a distinct economic advantage
Various environmental and economic factors contributed to patters of migration between 1750-1900.
for work
new labor systems
British abolished slavery in 1806
indentured servitude
work for certain number of years to repay debt
some workers staying in countries after their indenture was complete
Asian contract laborers
first attempt at a replacement
brought in Chinese and Indian workers to work for extremely low wages
penal colonies
British holding of Australia; Brits sent convicts there for hard labor
bad conditions at home
poverty in India, mass migration out of India
British offered opportunities for indentured servitude for Indians in Mauritius
Indian diasporic communities?
Ireland
huge wave of Irish immigrants due to Potato Famine of 1845
many hungry, many died
immigration to America; worked in factories, helped build railroads, etc
most immigrants settled in large cities
contributed to growing trend of urbanization
establishment of ethnic enclaves
portion of the receiving city that came to reflect their own character, language, and culture
cultural diffusion
responses/receiving the immigrants
many cases they faces discrimination, racist legislation aimed to oppress them
Australia: White Australia policy
U.S.: Chinese Exclusion act
UNIT 7
Internal and external factors contributed to significant change in various states across the world after 1900.
overall change in states
Russian Revolution
internal: Russia is lagging behind economic growth of the west, reluctant to expand civil liberties
external: loss of Crimean war, loss of Russo-Japanese war
result of factors: Bolsheviks seize power and establish a communist government → Soviet Union
China
internal: Qing China has lots of ethnic tension/rival ethnic groups, constant danger of famine, diminished government revenue
external: encroaching western industrialization
result: Chinese dynasty overthrown by Sun Yatsen
no more dynasties
Mexican Revolution
factors: huge wealth gap (esp. in regard to land), long-term cooperation with U.S investors to the detriment of landless poor
result: revolution led by Francisco Madero
sought to correct internal and external problems
some degree of success
World War I was caused by a combination of militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism. (M.A.I.N)
militarism: buildup of military weaponry
alliance systems: defensive grouping of nations that were stacked against one another
imperialism: fierce competition to lay claim to the remaining lands
example: “scramble for africa”
nationalism: intense feelings of pride in one’s own national identity, culture, and language
assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand
blamed on Serbian nationalists
Austria-Hungary backed by Germany and Serbia allied with Russia
Governments used a variety of strategies to fight World War I, including propaganda to mobilize their home fronts and new weapons technology in the battlefield.
WWI is a total war, 1914-1918
each country fighting leveraged all of its domestic assets to fight; assets at home and abroad
transformed entire domestic industries and economies
propaganda
way of communicating that spreads biased or inaccurate information, which is supposed to persuade people to support a cause
usually demonized the enemies, over-glorified the cause
new wartime technologies
poison gas, machine guns, submarines, tanks, trench warfare
trench warfare wasn’t new but the extent of it and combination with other technologies was
ensured long-lasting stalemates and lots of casualties
end of WWI
1918 signing of the Treaty of Versailles
Following WWI, governments began to take a more prominent role in their nations’ economies.
United States
1930s: Great Depression, begins in United States
U.S. is supporting lots of European economies→economy very much intertwined
start of Depression: president= republican Herbert Hoover
supporter of government not meddling in the economy; laissez-faire
didn’t work, so next election..
democrat Franklin Roosevelt elected
promised to be very vigorous with government intervention in the economy
the New Deal
represented massive government spending meant to rescue the US from the depression
Germany
economically ruined after WWI, specifically because of hyperinflation
printing too much money, German mark was so depressed in value → essentially worthless
rise of fascism in Germany and the Nazi party
Nazis enacted very strong government intervention in the economy
ceased reparations payments that were required by the Treaty of Versailles
spent lots of time building their military
Soviet Union
enacted a series of Five Year Plans (Joseph Stalin)
meant to transform the USSR into an industrial power very rapidly
collectivization of agriculture
served the needs of urban industrial centers
led to widespread famine and death in rural areas (especially in Ukraine)
World War II was caused by the unsustainable peace agreement of WWI, economic crisis, and the rise of fascist regimes, most notably, Nazi Germany.
Treaty of Versailles was a hot mess
war guilt clause
France and Britain wanted to punish Germany so now Germany was at fault and blamed for the entire war
mandate for reparations
Germany paid for the war through reparations, destroyed their economy
Italy Benito Mussolini
first fascist regime
Nazi party
focuses on extreme nationalism- “we the best, evb else is the worst”
tapped into deep grievance of the German people
canceled reparations
Hitler took land surrounding Germany for living space
British response: appeasement
Prime minister Chamberlain - “just dont take anymore”
final straw: Hitler’s invasion of Poland in 1939
WWII was another total war, and totalitarian and democratic nations deployed all their nations’ resources to fight and win.
methods were mostly the same as the first war
propaganda, manufacturing sectors repurposed for military output, colonial powers calling colonial men to fight in the war (+ colonial women to support the war effort)
United States
strongest industrial sector in the world, and not in danger of destruction
produced an astounding amount of munitions (military weapons) for the war effort
Japan formally declares war w/ U.S. with Pearl Harbor
men mobilize and go out to fight → women take their places in the factories
Germany
mobilized relying on forced labor and concentration camps
counterproductive: conditions so harsh that productivity suffered greatly
repression of civil liberties
much like in World War I
curtailments of the freedom of speech in democracies: U.S
Japanese internment- after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt signed an executive order to round up all the Japanese people in America and place them in internment camps
new military tactics/technology
firebombing (Tokyo and Dresden)- incendiary bombs meant to start fires
atomic bomb (Hiroshima and Nagasaki)- US tech in order to force Japan to surrender
had its desired effect: Japan surrendered and WWII was over
The rise of extremist groups led to the attempted destruction of certain populations through genocide or ethnic violence.
Nazi Holocaust
happened under the program of “the final solution”
goal: to rid the German population of Jews (and other undesirables)
effect: forced removal of Jewish population into concentration camps
stronger ones → labor camps, weaker ones → mass extermination camps
Ukraine Holodomor
agricultural capital, esp. for grain, for the Soviet Union (very fertile land)
Stalin sending food to urban centers with his 5yr plans
farmers begin resenting his collectivization of agriculture, very little food left for the farmers themselves
farmers response
burnt crops, killed livestock
result: massive famine, 7 to 10 million peasants dead
Stalin’s response
take crops that were grown (or grown elsewhere) and keep sending them to urban workers instead of the Ukrainian peasantry that are starving
UNIT 8
The Cold War was a decades-long ideological struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union that shaped, to a significant degree, the geopolitics in the second half of the 20th century.
began right after WWII, both superpowers emerging (US/Soviet Union)
causes of CW
conflicting ideologies
U.S. = democratic capitalism; Soviet Union = authoritarian communism
both ideologies want to expand (kind of like ethnic religions and universalizing religions)
mutual mistrust between the superpowers
Stalin claimed east Europe and refused to allow democratic elections (even though it was part of an agreement that he was supposed to)
disagreements over Germany
how should Germany be treated in the post-war era? Soviet wants to keep it weak, West wanted a strong German economic recovery
decolonization led to the non-aligned movement
dozens of brand new states
both superpowers trying to influence new states and get them on their side
states resist getting caught up in the cold war rivalry
movement began in 1955 w/ Indonesian president Achmed Sukarno
hosted meeting of 29 African/Asian heads of state, representatives of new states that were formerly colonies or those still resisting colonial rule/in search of independence
The major effects of the Cold War included an arms race, new military alliances, and proxy wars across the globe.
both superpowers spend tons of money developing larger/more powerful stockpiles of weapons
especially nuclear weapons → lots of tension
military alliances
NATO, North Atlantic Treaty Alliance
defensive alliance started by the United States, Western Europe states then joined
Warsaw Pact
made in response to NATO by the Soviets
Soviet Union + their satellite states in Eastern and Central Europe
proxy wars
Korean and Vietnam wars
both split between communist and anti-communist forces struggling for dominance in new era of their independence
both ended essentially in stalemates
Nicaragua
1979, group of socialist revolutionaries known as the Sandinistas overthrew the dictator
got support from Cuba and the Soviets
response: US invested heavily in other group in the country that wanted to oust the Sandinistas: the Contras
ended in 1989 with a ceasefire and a military demobilization
Angolan civil war
US and allies supported non-communist groups, Soviets and allies supported the communist groups
became much longer and deadlier due to the foreign intrusion and involvement of the two superpowers
end: communist forces won and assumed power
During this period, some states adopted communism, but none more significant than China.
causes of the Communist revolution
grievances over China’s dependence on Western power
1911 revolution that established China as a republic
Mao Zedong communist forces with significant aid from the Soviets and their allies ended up winning
defeated the opposing nationalist party
China became a Communist state
Mao’s Communist policies + Soviet comparisons
collectivization of agriculture
in Soviet Union: went super bad and led to Holodomor
China: relatively peaceful process due to widespread support for the Communist party among the peasants
state control of the economy
China’s Great Leap Forward
economic plan that was intended to rapidly industrialize through development of heavy industry in rural areas
industrial goods created in the rural areas were of poor quality
Mao’s policies here ultimately led to the starvation of 20-50 million Chinese ppl
socialist movement to redistribute land and resources
Egypt
1869: British and French built the Suez Canal
extremely strategic waterway for sea-based trade from Europe into the Indian Ocean
1952 Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser proclaimed independence for Egypt
nationalized the Suez Canal, now it belongs to Egypt
Brits+French+ Israeli troops invaded Egypt in retaliation
Soviet Union backed Nasser (the socialist)
Eisenhower put pressure on Britain and France to withdraw, and they did
Vietnam
after colonial independence, two rival governments established
communist govt. quickly established and began program of land redistribution
few wealthy land owners held nearly all of Vietnam’s agricultural land
under the program: owner cancelled, all the land given → peasantry
The process of decolonization occurred in one of two ways: negotiated independence or armed conflict.
negotiated independence
India
1885, Indian National Congress formed
petitioned the British for greater degree of self-rule
British ignored this
After WWI: Gandhi leads non-violent resistance movement characterized by civil disobedience
After WWII: British is broke and theres a large pro-independence contingent in Parliament
1947: India’s independence officially recognized
not bloodless: violence occurred because of Britain’s plan to partition India into two states
India for Hindus, Pakistan for Muslims
armed resistance
Algeria
French colony in Africa, hot spot for French settlers
1954, Algerian Muslims form the National Liberation Front
rebelled violently against the French
ultimately secured their independence
French response: brutality, war continues until 1962
French president declared the end of the war
The redrawing of political boundaries during decolonization led to conflict and population displacement.
Israel
pre-WWI: Palestine is part of the Ottoman Empire
home to majority Muslim population
Ottomans on the losing side of the war
Palestine transferred to Britain under the mandate system
since late 19th c., nationalistic ideology called Zionism was growing among Jews that were scattered among Europe
chief desires of Zionist Jews=state of their own in Palestine
during/after WWI: large waves of Jews migrating to Palestine
Arab Muslim population resisted the migration
after WWII: UN declared that Palestine would be partitioned into two states (one for Jews, one for Arab Muslims)
much like the partition of India, it did not go well
Jews accept the plan and declare independence in 1948
Palestinians took up arms against the Israelis with support from neighboring Arab states
still an ongoing conflict i fear
partitions never go well
In newly independent states, governments often took a strong role in guiding economic life in order to promote their own growth and development.
Nasser in Egypt (again)
1956, he nationalizes the Suez canal
when Western powers invade, he gains Soviet support to end conflict
Indira Gandhi in India
adoption of the Green Revolution
Julius Nyerere in Tanzania
modernization policies
Movements to resist oppressive power structures multiplied in this period. Some were characterized by non-violence, others by violence.
nonviolent resistance
Mohandas Gandhi
big role India independence movement
led tons of non-violent civil disobedience movements such as….
homespun movement
protest of Britains economic dominance of India’s cotton industry
Gandhi encouraged his followers to make their own clothes at home
salt march
in response to the British imperial salt tax
Gandhi+followers walked couple hundred miles to India’s west coast to harvest their own salt (illegal act)
Martin Luther King Jr.
United States, inspired by Gandhi and took up tactics of civil disobedience
protesting America’s racial segregation laws
Montgomery bus boycott, sit-ins
ultimately, civil rights movement affect political change
Supreme Court outlawed racial discrimination, overturned laws
integrated schools in the 1950s
Congress passed anti-discrimination laws in the 1960s
Nelson Mandela
from South Africa, prominent leader of African National Congress
system of apartheid: Africans were denied basic rights
led black South Africans in acts of non-violent resistance
strikes and boycotts
unlike Gandhi and MLK, Mandela eventually changed his mind on tactics of nonviolence and endorsed violent resistance
jailed for more than two decades
released in 1994, runs for president and wins the office
movements where interaction with the powers intensified the violence
Agusto Pinochet in Chile
led a military coup to overthrow the democratically elected president (Salvador Allende, was a Marxist)
Pinochet overthrows Allende
sets himself up as a brutal dictator
under his rule: military conducted raids, executions, torture against his political enemies (including members of the leftist political parties, labor unions, and Catholic Church)
The Cold War ended because of U.S. military development, the Soviet Union’s failed invasion of Afghanistan, and the reform policies of Mikhail Gorbachev.
US military & tech development
1980: Ronald Reagan elected
led US federal government into massive government spending on military/tech development
Soviets tried to keep up w/ spending
couldn’t, on account of their 1970s laggy economy
failed invasion in 1979
tried to prop up communist regimes
rebels were supported by US and Saudia Arabia and Pakistaand
policies
1985, he comes to power
reforms of Gorbachev=perestroika and glasnost
P= restructure economy by reducing level of central planning from the govt.
G= openness, freedom of speech given new life and criticism of govt. more tolerated
no more military intervention to prop up communist govts in Eastern Europe
satellite states in Soviet bloc went independent
1991: Soviet legislature voted to dissolve the union
UNIT 9
New technologies increased the speed of globalization and had widespread effects on the global population in the 20th & 21st centuries.
communication: cell phones, laptops, radio, the Internet
transportation: cars, planes, shipping containers!!
these two facilitate migration and urbanization keeps ppl in contact as they migrate → globalization
shipping containers increased the freight of goods that can be shipped internationally
massive increase in global commerce
medicine: contraception, antibiotics, vaccines
declining birth rate in wealthier western countries
end to many diseases, esp in the wealthier nations
polio and measles
energy: petroleum, nuclear power
increased worker productivity and amount of goods that can be manufactured
agriculture: Green Revolution
mechanized agriculture, crossbreeding (new strands of grains and wheat) esp in 3rd world countries
New and old diseases continued to pose a threat in the age of globalization.
AID/HIV outbreak
eased a lot by Princess Diana
blamed a lot on the homosexuals because people didn’t know how it was truly spread
malaria, tuberculosis, cholera
all associated with poverty, didn’t have access to vaccines
pandemics
AIDS/HIV, ebola, Spanish flue pandemic of 1918 (end of WWI, brought by soldiers), COVID-19
demographic consequences
occasion created for tech and med advances to cure them
new disease associated w/ old age
and developed western world
better diets, living longer
heart disease, alzheimers, diabetes
Globalization has created some significant environmental problems with various attempted solutions
deforestation
desertification (too much harvesting and harmful chemicals)
decline in air quality
1950 London Great Smog