Chapter 16: Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
Toward a New Worldview 1540-1789
Introduction
Pretext
Until the 16th century, Relied on an understanding of Motion and matter drawn from Aristotle and adapted to Christian theology.
Rise of university with Renaissance and tech advances inspired scholars to look for better answers
~ Arabs were the first scientific Scholars. China Later followed.
World’s first Universities:
- Constantinople
- Fez, Morocco
- Cairo, Egypt
Arabic Discoveries and Inventions:
Algebra
Algorithm Concept
Decimal Point notation
Astronomers improved measurements from ancient works
China: mid-14th century.
Papermaking
GunPowder
Compass used for navigation
Maya And Aztecs: Calender Systems, math and writing
Europe was behind in a sense
They used Greek works translated into Latin by arab scholars and created universities that dominated Aristotle’s work as the curriculum.
Chronology
ca. 1540-1700: Scientific Revolution
ca. 1690-1789: Enlightenment
ca. 1700-1800:Growth of book publishing
1720-1780: Rococo style in art and decoration
1740-1748: War of the Austrian Succession
1740-1780: Reign of the Empress Maria Theresa of Austria
1740-1786: Reign of Frederick the Great of Prussia
ca. 1740-1789: Salons led by Parisian elites
1751-1772: Philosophes publish Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts
1756-1763: Seven Years' War
1762-1796: Reign of Catherine the Great of Russia
1780-1790: Reign of Joseph II of Austria
1791: Establishment of the Pale of Settlement
About
The period spanning the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries represents a monumental shift in human thought, culminating in what is recognized today as a modern worldview. This epoch was characterized by innovative methodologies in understanding the natural world, marking the transition from medieval perspectives to those informed by systematic inquiry and empirical evidence. A notable emergence during this time was that of early modern philosophers, frequently referred to as "natural philosophers," who employed rigorous experimentation, detailed observations, and sophisticated mathematical frameworks to propel scientific understanding forward.
This era came to be distinctly identified as the "Scientific Revolution," a critical turning point wherein foundational concepts and methodologies essential to contemporary science were solidified. Following this period, the Enlightenment emerged in the eighteenth century, amplifying the application of reason from the simple study of nature to the complexities of human society. The Enlightenment period championed ideals such as progress, the sanctity of human rights, and the principles of tolerance, significantly influencing the realms of political, social, and intellectual thought and development in profound and transformative ways.
The Scientific Revolution
Four factors that start the scientific revolution
Renaissance
Humanism
Secularism
Individualism - you can do whatever you want, you are capable.
Classicism - going back to Rome
2. Universities
Better educated people
Strengthens access to scientific knowledge and weapons
3. Exploration
Navigation and reading the stars to get there
How does the universe work?
4. Scientific methods
Francis Bacon, Descartes, Aristotle, Newton
Hypothesis, experiment
The scientific method relies on systematic observation, measurement, and experimentation to formulate and test hypotheses, leading to reliable conclusions about the natural world. This approach contrasts with previous methods of inquiry, emphasizing empirical evidence and rational thought as the foundation for scientific advancement.
Why Europe:
Europe became the epicenter of the Scientific Revolution due to a confluence of cultural, intellectual, and economic factors, including the Renaissance's revival of classical knowledge, the rise of universities that fostered critical thinking, and the patronage of scientific endeavors by wealthy individuals and institutions.
The Age of Exploration also played a crucial role, as discoveries and the need for better navigation techniques spurred advancements in mathematics and astronomy.
The invention of the printing press further facilitated the dissemination of new ideas, allowing for rapid communication and collaboration among scholars across Europe.
Additionally, the Protestant Reformation challenged traditional authority, encouraging individuals to question established beliefs and seek empirical evidence, which laid the groundwork for scientific inquiry.
These combined elements transformed the science landscape and set the stage for the Enlightenment, where reason and individualism became central themes in the pursuit of knowledge.
Key Developments and Important Figures
The introduction of empirical methodologies marked a pivotal transformation in the study of nature, as scholars prioritized observation and experimentation over established dogmas and ancient texts.
Notable figures of this revolution included:
Nicolaus Copernicus: Sun-centered universe proposal; His revolutionary proposition of the heliocentric model fundamentally challenged the long-accepted geocentric view, which had traditionally designated Earth as the center of the universe -Tycho Brahe Contradicts but is proven false- This radical shift in perspective laid the groundwork for future astronomical exploration
Discoveries:
Proposes the heliocentric model- the sun is the center of the universe, the earth rotates on an axis and revolves around 365 days
Wrote “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres"
Johannes Kepler: Brahe’s Assistant - provided robust empirical support for the Copernican heliocentric model By discovering the laws of planetary motion—most notably the elliptical orbits of planets—
Discoveries:
Three laws of planetary motion: described the elliptical orbits of planets and provided a mathematical foundation for understanding celestial mechanics.
Elliptical orbits,
No uniform speed
Orbit is related to distance from the sun.
Galileo Galilei: Often referred to as the "father of modern observational astronomy," Galileo made significant contributions by using the telescope to observe celestial bodies. His discoveries provided critical evidence supporting the heliocentric theory and challenged the Aristotelian worldview that dominated the era and the orthodox Church teachings of his time; Condemned by the Inquisition in 1633(House arrest for life )
Discoveries:
Theory of Inertia
Moons of Jupiter
Phases of Venus
Universe was Mathematical
Isaac Newton: His formulation of the laws of motion and universal gravitation brought coherence and unity to the previously disparate fields of physics and mathematics, signifying a monumental advancement in scientific methodology. He avoided Church criticism by writing he is a “Man of God and Science”
Discoveries:
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
Proposed law of gravitation
3 laws of motion
One of the founders of Calculus
Newtonian Universe:
Copernicus’ astronomy + Kepler’s Laws + Galileo’s Physics
Francis Bacon: Inductive Reasoning - Taking a single piece of evidence and trying to create a general Hypothesis, Died of Pneumonia from a chicken.
Rene Descartes: Deductive Reasoning - Taking a general hypothesis and trying to specify it
Discoveries:
Founder of Modern Philosophy
Created Geometry
the idea of “cogito ergo sum” = “I think therefore I am”.
State of mind and matter
The universe was a mechanical System
“Intuition”
Cartesian Dualism: Believes the pineal gland took the mind substances and turned them into body substances
Andreas Vesalius: Anatomist and Physician; Built upon works of Galen* and Ptolemy
Discoveries:
Publishes the First Anatomy Textbook
Founder of Modern Biological Sciences and Anatomy
Assembles the First Skeleton
Studies the human body- gets corpses performs experiments and records his observations
Wrote “On the fabric of the human body” - the foundation of modern anatomy
Led English Physician Harvey to discover the Circulation of Blood through veins and arteries.
*Galen was the authoritative figure of biology, as Aristotle was of Physics. According to Galen, the body contains four Humors: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Illness is the result of an imbalance of humors. This caused doctors to prescribe bloodletting as a cure. Next, Swiss alchemist Paracelsus believed it to be a Chemical Imbalance rather than humoral.
The significant transition from Aristotelian cosmology to heliocentric views not only revolutionized astronomy but also profoundly redefined humanity's existential position within the vast universe, altering the very fabric of scientific thought.
Significance
The Scientific Revolution established a new epistemological framework for understanding nature, turning away from traditional, dogmatic approaches and forging the foundational principles of modern scientific inquiry. The advancements realized during this period spanned various disciplines, including botany, zoology, and chemistry, fostering an intellectual culture that prioritized observation and experimentation as the cornerstones of knowledge.
Impact on Society
This intellectual shift instigated a departure from conventional reliance on authoritative texts and ancient scholars, advocating for methodologies that emphasized direct empirical observation. This transformation significantly reshaped educational practices and the dissemination of knowledge across Europe and beyond.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment encapsulated a vigorous spirit of inquiry and rational thought. Philosophes ardently promoted the use of reason, the pursuit of progress, the application of scientific methods, and the optimistic belief in humanity’s capacity to improve society through informed governance and intellectual discourse.
Why Was France Center?:
Economy
Universities
French was the Language of the Intellectual society
Louis XIV was Most absolutist - thought that it wouldn’t threaten him and he could crush it down if out of control.
L'encyclopedie By Denis Diderot - lists information atlas of knowledge
Greatest monument of the Enlightenment
Knowledge was rational and it followed the laws of culture
Everything is equally open to criticism
Goal: to change the way of thinking ( & bring glory to France)
28 volumes, 2885 illustrations, 60,000 articles
Attempted to categorize and organize all knowledge
Denis Diderot- reached out to many Philosophers and they wrote their discoveries based on whatever contempt and then he put them all in the encyclopedia; This was all so people would branch out
Absolutists of Louis didn't allow him to publish it since it criticized absolutism and Catholics; Catherine then published it and she believed in the ideas of the enlightenment
“Skepticism is the first step on the road to Philosophy”
Main Figures
The era was populated by key thinkers, including:
Voltaire: One of the most progressive figures - A fierce critic of organized religion, Voltaire ardently positioned reason as the guiding force for societal advancement.
Achievements/Ideas:
Wrote Candide - “one must cultivate one's own garden” = you decide what defines happiness in your life.
The character (Candid) believes that all men are naturally good, He leaves his village and goes through lots of obstacles in society, but believes it will get better all the way through, and then he returns to work on his garden.
Advocated Freedom of Speech
Against Corrupt officials, Slavery, Religious Persecution
Supported Separation of Church and State
Championed virtues of Britain
Thought enlightened monarchs would protect the people from the self-interest of the nobles
Believed in God but not the church - “If god didn't exist, one would have to invent him. I want my attorney, tailor, servants, and my wife to believe..”(in god) - Nobody is saying they don't believe in God
Criticized the church - “Crush the horrible thing!” ; He speaks out against the catholic church a lot ( not against religion) but against Catholics.
Montesquieu: His seminal concept of the separation of powers within government provided an innovative framework designed to prevent tyranny and abuse of power, influencing modern democratic thought.
Achievements/Ideas:
Wrote Persian Letters (1721) - nature has a universal standard of justice; Wrote as Fiction so he could compare France with other parts without criticism. mankind should have rights protected for all men
“Slavery is a giant natural Law”
Wrote The Spirit of the Laws (1748) - Used observation, experimentation, and analysis in England to champion the belief of separation of powers- 3 branches of govt: judicial, executive, and legislative; and believes there are checks and balances between these branches.
Conclusion : Constitutionalism over despotism and/or republicanism
Sovereignty came from people, not god
Radical to give ALL MEN the right to vote
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: from “Late Enlightenment”; A proponent of the social contract theory, Rousseau emphasized the vital importance of collective sovereignty and the general will, laying the philosophical foundations for modern democratic governance and civic responsibility.
Achievements/Ideas:
Rejected the idea of cold reason and hard logic - believed humans emotional creatures and rely on it to make decisions; He mocked Voltaire for not taking emotion into account and Voltaire mocks him for being too emotional
Wrote The Social Contract - believes people are naturally good however society corrupts this goodness; Compared to Primitive Society; Without Government, “The Noble Savage” people were happier and life was simpler.
Supported Leaders should listen to the general will
But the problem is:
→ The Leader can manipulate the will
→ General people’s wants and needs are different and They can be morally wrong
→ Tyranny of the majority- small minorities can be the most vocal, they don't symbolize every one
Advocate for women's education (which put him in the minorities)
Notorious drunk - loves arguing for the sake of entertainment
“Men are born free, but they constricted to chains”
John Locke: Believed people learned through experience, This approach contrasts with previous concepts that people were given knowledge at birth and that it was locked into them.
Achievements/Ideas:
Advocated Religious Toleration
The experience was the source of Knowledge
Wrote Two Treatises of Government - a Social Contract where you can overthrow your leader if “Liberty, Life, and Property” are Violated
Endorsed constitutional government in which power derives from the consent of governed
Tabula Rasa = Blank State: you are born knowing nothing and this is filled in with experiences that are guided by your senses) - you know fire is bad when you touch it.
Advocated for educational reform, freedom of the press, and separation of powers
Major Ideals
Rationalism: This intellectual movement emphasized the significance of logic, reason, and evidence-based thinking as the primary methodologies for understanding the world and societal structures.
Universalism: The principles of human rights, equality, and the intrinsic dignity of all individuals were advocated during this time, promoting a vision of society where equal rights were accessible to all.
Skepticism: Enlightenment thinkers fostered an environment that encouraged the questioning of traditional beliefs and societal institutions, cultivating a critical approach to inherited dogmas, and thereby allowing for intellectual and societal progress.
Social and Political Implications
Enlightened Absolutism
Political impact: people should be ruled by laws, not rulers “enlightened absolutism”; absolute monarchy was rejected and defended
Some monarchs, such as Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia, attempted to incorporate Enlightenment principles into their governance through reform policies aimed at modernizing their states. However, their often-absolute authority frequently conflicted with core Enlightenment ideals, fostering discord between their autocratic practices and the aspirations for greater equality and human freedom; examples of this contradiction are evident in the continued existence of serfdom under their regimes.
Women and the Enlightenment
Women played a significant yet often marginalized role in the propagation of Enlightenment ideas. The rise of salon culture—a social phenomenon predominantly hosted by women—provided critical spaces for the discussion and debate of philosophical, political, and social ideas, allowing for women’s contributions to be voiced and recognized within the broader Enlightenment context, thus paving the way for later movements advocating for women’s rights and equality.
Salons:
Hosted by an upper-class woman
Invite important thinkers, philosophers
Have a serious discussion on enlightenment thoughts on all topics
Statue of Voltaire - role model for Enlightenment thinker
Conclusion
The transformative period from 1540 to 1789 exemplifies monumental shifts in intellectual thought, scientific discovery, and societal structures that laid the very groundwork for modernity. The lasting legacy of the Scientific Revolution and the philosophical developments of the Enlightenment continue to resonate in contemporary discussions regarding knowledge, governance, the principles of human rights, and the ceaseless quest for progress and equality within society.