Punctuation, Appositive Phrases, Verbal Phrases, and Clauses — Vocabulary Flashcards
Punctuation and Comma Mastery
Core idea: punctuation acts as the traffic signals of writing, guiding readability and meaning. The focus here is on comma usage, with extensive coverage of related phrases and clauses that affect comma placement.
Practical relevance: these rules are especially useful for editing, exams (e.g., ACT with minutes for questions), and improving clear communication in everyday writing.
The Comma: Overview and Purpose
The comma is the primary tool for separating and clarifying elements in a sentence (independent clauses, introductory elements, series, modifiers, etc.).
Common problem: misuse accounts for about half of punctuation errors. Mastery reduces ambiguity and misreading.
Key takeaway: use commas to prevent misreading and to signal relationships between sentence parts, but avoid unnecessary commas that create choppiness or fragment sentences.
Set Off Independent Clauses (Compound Sentences)
Use a comma to separate two independent clauses when they are joined by a coordinate conjunction: and, or, nor, for, but, yet, so.
Example: The play’s star is Phillip Seymour Hoffman, and its author is Tennessee Williams.
Example: We’re happy to be going to the beach for our vacation, yet we were hoping to go to Disney World.
Example: I think it’s time to let the cat back in, for he’s making a terrible racket at the door.
Example: Taylor did not appreciate the opera’s storyline, nor did he care for the tenor’s voice.
DO NOT use a comma in Certain Situations
Do not place a comma if there is no full clause (S+V) after the conjunction:
Wrong: George straightened his tie, and put on his jacket.
Right: George straightened his tie and put on his jacket.
Exception (contrast with but): She always carries bandages with her, but will give them only to bleeding people to whom she has been formally introduced.
After the conjunction: place the comma before but only if it separates two independent clauses; otherwise omit it.
Wrong: I ordered chicken but, he ordered lobster.
Right: I ordered chicken, but he ordered lobster.
Short Independent Clauses and Semicolons
Do not use a comma between very short independent clauses: He lies and she cheats. You tell me and we’ll both know.
Do not join independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction with a comma (this is a comma splice); use a semicolon instead:
Wrong: The starting gun sounded, the crowd roared.
Right: The starting gun sounded; the crowd roared.
Polysyndeton (deliberate use of multiple conjunctions) may omit commas: He thought the remark she had made was brilliant or irrelevant or mad; The truth of her checking account was mysterious and awkward and sad.
Appositives and Appositive Phrases
Appositive: a noun or pronoun (often with modifiers) that explains or identifies another noun.
My friend Robert was in town this week.
Matthew West, a singer, will be performing in September.
Appositive Phrase: includes the appositive and its modifiers.
Greg’s truck, a gas-guzzling monster from the ’70’s, was on an episode of Cops not long after he sold it.
Appositive phrases usually follow the noun they identify, but may precede it with different comma placement.
A lovely Jack Russell terrier mix, Jolie is my constant companion.
Essential vs Nonessential Appositive Phrases
Nonessential (nonrestrictive) appositive phrases require commas. Essential (restrictive) appositive phrases do not.
Nuclear energy, a controversial alternative to fossil fuels, has become safer as the technology has developed. (nonessential)
Harper Lee’s novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, celebrated the 50th anniversary of its publishing this summer. (nonessential)
The baseball player Chipper Jones has been with the Atlanta Braves for years. (essential; no commas)
Indicating Number with Commas
You can indicate number or lists with commas in a way that clarifies meaning:
My brother, Chris, got married in May. (name set off by commas)
My uncle Michael quit his job, sold his house, and became a truck driver because he wanted to travel. (serial comma usage)
Prepositional Phrases as Introductory Elements
Use a comma to set off a long introductory prepositional phrase (7 words or more) or a series of introductory prepositional phrases:
After a long, hard day teaching grammar, I like to take Jolie for a walk.
In the bitter wind of the Yorkshire moors, Heathcliff searched for his Cathy.
If the introductory prepositional phrase is short, you typically do not need a comma after it:
In the morning we strolled along the boulevard.
Generally, prepositional phrases elsewhere in a sentence do not require commas.
Exceptions with Prepositional Phrases
Inverted sentences (verb before subject): do not separate the prepositional phrase with a comma:
On a wind-swept hill of the Yorkshire moors stands Wuthering Heights.
Parenthetical prepositional phrases (set off with commas):
She was, in my opinion, outstanding.
Parenthetical expressions interrupt the main flow but are close to the rest of the sentence.
Verbal Phrases (PIGs)
Verbal: a verb used as another part of speech (noun, adjective, or adverb).
Three kinds: Participles, Infinitives, and Gerunds (PIGs).
Introductory Verbal Phrases Acting as Modifiers
An introductory verbal phrase needs a comma unless it immediately precedes, and forms a part of, the subject or verb:
Speaking off the record, the mayor admitted the error.
To play bridge well, you need a good memory.
BUT NOT: Playing ultimate frisbee has become my brother’s favorite hobby.
OR: To play ultimate frisbee requires stamina.
Infinitive Phrases
Infinitive: to + verb, plus its complement or modifier(s).
If used as a subject, an infinitive does not require a comma: To become valedictorian would fulfill all his hopes.
The only noun infinitives that require commas are infinitives used as nonessential appositive:
His life’s ambition, to become a drummer for a rock- and-roll band, was never realized.
She finally reached her main goal in high school, to be valedictorian of her graduating class.
Infinitive Phrases as Modifiers (Adjectival and Adverbial)
If an infinitive functions as an adjective, it immediately follows the word it modifies and should not be separated by a comma:
I’ve decided on a plan to beg for new lunchroom tables and chairs.
Introductory adverb phrases (beginning of sentence, not the subject) are set off by a comma; other infinitives do not require commas:
To play bridge well, you need a good memory.
We ventured out into the wind to experience the fury of nature.
Everyone is impatient to write more essays.
Split Infinitives
Historical note: English allows splitting infinitives (to + verb with an adverb between them).
Rule still taught on standardized tests: avoid inserting an adverb between to and the verb, e.g., avoid “to boldly go.”
Preferred forms: “to go boldly” or “boldly to go.” The rule is fading in everyday use, but many courses still emphasize it.
Gerund Phrases
Gerund: the -ing form used as a noun; always a noun.
The gerund phrase can function as subject, object, or complement. It may be an appositive or modifier when needed.
The only time a gerund phrase needs commas is if it functions as an appositive:
Subject: Reading a trashy novel is a waste of time.
Do: How can you enjoy reading a trashy novel?
PN: Her chief pastime is reading a trashy novel.
Appositive: His chief pastime, reading a trashy novel, got him into trouble with his mother.
OP: He relaxes by reading a trashy novel.
If a gerund phrase is at the beginning of a sentence following a preposition (behind the preposition, e.g., of), it must be set off with a comma:
By carrying his heavy books around, Tyler built up his arm muscles.
Gerund Phrases: Possessive with a Gerund
If a noun or pronoun precedes a gerund, it must be in the possessive form:
I was surprised by the child’s question.
I was surprised by the child’s asking such a question.
Do you object to my presence? / Do you object to my being present?
Participial Phrases
Participial phrase: present (-ing) or past (-ed, -en, -n, -t) participle + complement or modifiers; always used as an adjective.
When a participial phrase starts a sentence and modifies a noun/pronoun after it, separate with a comma:
Immersed in a trashy novel, the young man ignored his mother’s pleas to take out the trash.
Starting school even earlier this year, the students were only half-awake every morning.
Essential vs Nonessential Participial Phrases
If the participial phrase is essential, do not set it off with commas:
The young man reading a trashy novel is my cousin. (essential to identify which young man)
If nonessential, set off with commas:
Jennifer, playing the piano skillfully, won the competition.
Sentence-Final Participial Phrases (Dangling Modifier Awareness)
When a participial phrase at the end obviously modifies the sentence’s subject, it should be set off with a comma:
Officer Smiley walked out into the street, smiling and waving at the people driving by.
Ongoing vs completed action guidance: this form typically signals ongoing action; completed action can also appear:
The freshman became flustered, scared suddenly that his previous study methods were insufficient for success at LAMP.
Dangling risk: if the participial phrase does not refer to the sentence’s subject, it is dangling:
Incorrect: A large twig floated over and jabbed him, swimming against the current.
Correct: Jimmy, swimming against the current, was jabbed by a floating twig.
Dangling Modifiers
A modifier must clearly and sensibly modify the closest appropriate word in the sentence. If there is no clear word to modify, the modifier dangles.
Example: Thinly sliced and heaped on rye, corned beef lovers won’t be disappointed by Chappy’s sandwiches.
Practice: identify the dangling modifier and fix it by rewording.
Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers: Practice (Concepts)
Exercises illustrate how to spot and correct:
The Simpsons gave a toy robot to one of their children with a bullet-shaped head and flashing red eyes. (ambiguous)
Pounding the piano keys with all her might, the chords of the prelude resounded through the concert hall.
The waiter brought us ice cream in glass bowls which started melting almost immediately.
We saw a herd of sheep on the way to our hotel.
When only five years old, my father took me to see my first baseball game.
More practice items focus on correct placement to eliminate ambiguity.
Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS)
The seven coordinating conjunctions are: and, or, nor, for, yet, so, but.
Acronym: FANBOYS.
Subordinating Conjunctions (Begin Adverb Clauses)
Subordinating conjunctions begin adverb clauses and answer questions like when, where, why, how, to what extent, under what conditions.
Examples (subset): since, until, while, in order that, as though, whether (or not), unless, provided (that), in case, as soon as, if, though, whereas, even though, that, where, whenever, after, because.
Absolute Phrases (Nominative Absolutes)
Absolute phrase: subject + participle + complement or modifiers; grammatically independent but logically connected to the sentence.
Always set off with a comma, placed at the beginning or end of a sentence:
Her face reddening, Miss Piggy karate-chopped Kermit.
The magician was kicked out of the theater, his chicanery having been unmasked.
More Absolute Phrases
Examples:
Her hands being cold, she plunged them into her inadequate pockets and tried to appreciate the snowstorm as an elemental treat.
Formalities having been dispensed with, the students of the month began to devour the pizza.
Prompt: Now write your own!
Items in a Series (Comma in Lists)
Use commas to separate items in a series of three or more:
Words: I enjoy the old films of Bogart, Cagney, Garbo, and Hepburn.
Phrases: The book is available in bookstores, at newsstands, or by mail.
Clauses: She took French lessons, she studied guidebooks, and she talked to people who had been to Paris.
Note: Some writers omit the comma before and/or or at the end of a series, but including it improves clarity; use a final comma before etc. in a listed series.
Do Not Use a Comma in a Two-Item Series or Redundant Repetition
With only two items: Ed bought spaghetti and pork.
Repeating and/or between every two items: Ed bought spaghetti and pork and angel food cake.
Before the first or after the last item:
Wrong: Ed bought, spaghetti, pork, and cake.
Right: Ed bought spaghetti, pork, and cake.
Also avoid discriminating comma placement after the last item in some constructions:
Wrong: Spaghetti, pork, and cake, are not everyone’s favorites.
Right: Spaghetti, pork, and cake are not everyone’s favorites.
Coordinate Adjectives
Use commas to separate adjectives of equal importance in a series of two or more; do not place a comma after the last adjective:
Tall, stately trees lined the roadway.
Vulgar, snide, or obscene remarks are not appreciated here.
Some adjective combinations do not take commas (they flow as a unit): little red schoolhouse, five funny old men.
How to test: see if you can rearrange with a conjunction (red little schoolhouse, old funny five men). If it sounds funny or you needed a conjunction, omit the comma.
Names, Direct Address, and Interjections
Names or Words used in Direct Address:
Henry, why are you slacking?
For my encore, ladies and gentlemen, I will play Chopsticks.
Mild Interjections (expressions of minor emotion): Yes, I did get a pedicure last weekend. No, you may not look at my feet. Dear me, how you have sacrificed your ethereal beauty for a life of greed and smut.
Direct Quotations and Introductory Phrases
Direct Quotations: generally, use commas to separate a direct quotation from surrounding text:
“I love you,” she whispered.
“And I,” he replied, “love you.”
Expressions that Introduce Examples or Contrast:
Ira enjoys all crafts, especially wood carving.
Dresden was in East Germany, not West Germany.
Use a Comma Also (Replacements and Grouping)
In Place of Omitted or Understood Words:
Nina attended Harvard; Lova, Princeton.
Before a Confirmatory (Tag) Question:
It’s a warm day, isn’t it?
To Group Words to Prevent Misreading:
Inside, the dog was growling. (not Inside the dog…)
After eating, the child became sleepy. (not After eating the child…)
In Letters and Dates/Addresses
In Letters:
After the greeting in a friendly letter: Dear Mabel,
In business letters: Dear Mrs. Butterworth:
After the complimentary closing in all letters: Very truly yours,
In Dates and Addresses:
On a month-day-year date, place the year within commas (as if parenthetical): On October 18, 1979, I was born in Montgomery, Alabama, at Baptist Hospital.
Parenthetical Expressions
Parenthetical expressions interrupt the main flow of thought and are not essential to meaning:
She was, in my opinion, outstanding.
It is unfortunate, to be sure.
A broad list includes: on the other hand, moreover, as a matter of fact, to tell the truth, of course, incidentally, namely, in the first place, therefore, thus, consequently, however, nevertheless.
Note: Some may be omitted when they do not interrupt thought; some can function as conjunctive adverbs.
Adjective Clauses (Relative Clauses)
A subordinate clause that modifies a noun or pronoun; usually introduced by a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that). It can also begin with when or where, or the relative adjective whose.
The movie that I watched last night was Young Frankenstein.
That is the house where I want to live.
Students long for the time when school is out again.
Do you know the boy whose locker jammed?
An adjective clause usually follows the word it modifies.
Relative pronouns perform three roles in their clause:
Refer to a preceding noun or pronoun
Connect their clauses to the rest of the sentence
Function within the clause (subject, object, etc.)
NB: The relative pronoun can be omitted in some contexts.
Who vs Whom; Case and Function in Adjective Clauses
Who vs Whom: who for nominative (subject) position, whom for objective (object) position or after a preposition.
Rules for determining case: find the subordinate clause; determine how the pronoun is used (subject, PN, DO, or OP); choose who (nominative) or whom (objective).
Do not be misled by other clauses (e.g., think/it seems) when determining the pronoun case.
Restrictive vs Nonrestrictive Adjective Clauses
Restrictive (essential) clauses do not use commas: The teacher whom I saw at a Biscuits game was Mr. Ellis.
The car that nearly ran me off the road was a dilapidated land barge. (restrictive)
Nonrestrictive (nonessential) clauses require commas: Mr. Gatling, who is a Beatle fanatic, went to the Paul McCartney concert a few weeks ago.
Nonrestrictive phrases: The new LAMP schedule, which starts ten minutes earlier and ends fifteen minutes earlier, forgot to take into account the extra two minutes needed by the second lunch wave to exit the lunchroom.
Practice with Adjective Clauses
Practice directions: determine the appropriate relative pronoun, whether commas are needed, and where they go.
In Hamlet the two characters (who, whom) I remember best are Hamlet and Ophelia.
If I had known (who, whom) she was I would have been more cordial.
The freshman class officers will be (whoever, whomever) the ninth graders elect.
Since I did not know (who, whom) the caller wanted I insisted he check his number again.
Everybody (who, whom) received an invitation sent a reply.
Additional practice examples cover various subject-verb-object relationships and pronoun functions.
Adverb Clauses
An introductory adverb clause: If you pay full tuition now, you may register by mail.
Note: Usually no comma when the adverb clause follows the main clause:
You may register by mail if you pay full tuition now.
Exception: If a sentence-final adverb clause begins with since or as (meaning because—but not because itself) or shows contrast, set it off with a comma:
I had to buy lunch at school today, since I left my lunchbox at home.
Julia went to bed early last night, as she felt like she was coming down with something.
Sally opened the jar and grabbed a big chocolate chip cookie for a snack, though her mother had told her to get some carrots out of the fridge.
BUT NOT: Julie finally went to sleep as her alarm was going off.
Time, Place, Manner, Cause, and Other Adverb Clauses
Time (when?): when, whenever, while, after, before, since, as, as soon as, until
Example: I left before the meeting started.
Place (where?): where, wherever
Manner (how?): as, as if, as though
Cause (why?): because, since
Purpose (so that, in order that)
Concession (although, though, even though)
Condition (if, unless, whether, provided that)
Result (that): He ran so fast that he was exhausted.
Comparison (to what degree?): as, than
Adverb Clauses as Fragments and Fragments in General
One common fragment type is a subordinate clause standing alone: Do not separate a phrase or subordinate clause from the sentence it belongs to.
Example: I was happy. Because finals were over. (fragment if separated)
Do Not Use a Comma in Certain Situations (Subject-Verb Relationships)
Do not use a comma to separate a subject from its verb or a verb from its complement (DO, IO, OC, PN):
On our trip we saw, countless lakes and hills. (incorrect due to misplaced comma)
Do not join two independent clauses in place of a coordinating conjunction or semicolon (comma splice).
Summary of Comma Rules (Key Categories)
Use a comma to set off:
Independent Clauses with a coordinate conjunction
Introductory Elements (intro adverb clauses, long prepositional phrases, series, intro verbal phrases not as subjects)
Items in a Series
Coordinate Adjectives
Parenthetical Expressions (general and nonrestrictive adjective clauses and nonrestrictive appositives/phrases)
Absolute Phrases (Nominative Absolute)
Nouns of Direct Address
Mild Interjections
Direct Quotations
Expressions Introduced by Such as, Especially, Particularly; and Expressions of Contrast
Use a Comma Also (Additional Roles for Clarity)
In Place of Omitted/Underlying Words
Before a Tag Question (Yes/No question)
To Group Words to Prevent Misreading
In Letters and Dates/Addresses (as described above)
NEVER Use a Comma
To separate a subject from its verb or a verb from its complement
To join two independent clauses in place of a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon
Quick Reference: Structures and Punctuation Notes
Coordinating Conjunctions: and, or, nor, for, yet, so, but (FANBOYS)
Subordinating Conjunctions introduce adverb clauses: see long list above
Appositives and Appositive Phrases require commas for nonessential forms
Infinitives: subject forms do not require a comma; nonessential appositive infinitives may
Gerunds: always nouns; commas mainly with appositive gerund phrases
Participles: act as adjectives; comma rules depend on essential vs nonessential phrasing
Absolute Phrases: always set off with a comma; can appear at beginning or end of a sentence
Adjective Clauses: identify whether restrictive (no commas) or nonrestrictive (commas)
Adverb Clauses: recognize time/place/manner/cause/purpose/concession/condition/result/comparison; comma usage follows introductory vs non-introductory placement;
Practice and revision: apply rules to identify dangling/misplaced modifiers and ensure clarity of meaning.
Practical Tips for Exam and Real-World Writing
When in doubt, pause and re-read to check whether the comma clarifies structure or creates division in meaning.
For long introductory phrases, a comma is often warranted to avoid a run-on feeling.
When listing items, include the final serial comma before “and”/“or” to avoid ambiguity.
In academic writing, follow strict rules for restrictive vs nonrestrictive clauses to preserve meaning.
Use the ACT-style practice mindset: expect comma rules to be tested in identifying appropriate punctuation in varied sentence constructions.
Quick Index of Key Terms
Coordinating conjunctions: and, or, nor, for, yet, so, but
Subordinating conjunctions: since, until, while, in order that, as though, whether, unless, provided (that), in case, as soon as, if, though, whereas, even though, that, where, whenever, after, because
Appositive, Appositive Phrase
Participial Phrase, Gerund, Infinitive
Adjective Clause, Relative Pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that)
Restrictive vs Nonrestrictive Clauses
Absolute Phrase (Nominative Absolute)
Dangling Modifier, Misplaced Modifier
Fragment, Comma Splice, Serial (Oxford) Comma
Note: The above notes synthesize content from Pages 2–60 of the provided transcript, preserving the examples and guidelines exactly as presented where possible, and organizing them into a structured study resource with detailed rules, exceptions, and practical applications. Where appropriate, examples have been restated to reflect the exact wording from the transcript for clarity and recall.