Comprehensive Study Guide to the Civil Rights Era

Civil Rights Leadership and Direct Action during World War II

A. Philip Randolph's Advocacy during World War II * The Threat of Protesting: During World War II, A. Philip Randolph threatened to lead a massive march on Washington D.C. to protest discrimination within the defense industry and the military. * Significance of the Threat: This threat was critically important because it applied significant political pressure on the United States government to address racial inequality during a global conflict where the U.S. was fighting for democracy abroad. * Executive Response by President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR): In direct response to Randolph's threat of a march, President Roosevelt issued an executive order that officially banned discrimination in defense jobs. * Utilization of Political Power: Black leaders during the WWII era successfully utilized their political power by organizing protests and consistently pressuring the federal government to grant equal rights and protections to African American citizens.

Legal Foundations and the Fight Against Segregation

Establishment of "Separate but Equal": The legal principle of "separate but equal," which provided a constitutional basis for Jim Crow laws and segregation, was established in the landmark Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson.
The NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People): * Mission and Progress: The NAACP pushed for Black progress by systematically fighting against segregation. Their primary methods included litigating court cases to challenge discriminatory laws and organizing public protests.
The Overturning of Segregated Schooling: The Supreme Court ruled in the case of Brown v. Board of Education that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, effectively overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine in the realm of public education.
Opposition to Desegregation: In response to federal mandates for desegregation, many white Americans joined organizations known as White Citizen’s Councils to actively push back against and prevent the integration of society.

The Montgomery Bus Boycott

Origins of the Boycott: Following the arrest of Rosa Parks for refusing to give up her seat on a segregated bus, the first organization to call for a city-wide boycott of Montgomery buses was the Women’s Political Council (WPC).
Strategic Organization: The Montgomery Bus Boycott was not a spontaneous occurrence; rather, it was a meticulously planned and organized effort led by established civil rights groups to challenge the city's segregation ordinance.
Leadership of Martin Luther King Jr.: Martin Luther King Jr. was chosen as the primary leader of the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
Core Strategy: King emphasized the use of nonviolent protest as the fundamental strategy for ending segregation and achieving social justice.
Role of the Women’s Political Council (WPC): The WPC played a vital role in the success of the boycott by organizing the logistics and spreading critical information to the community about how to participate in the boycott.
Legal Conclusion: The boycott ended successfully when the Supreme Court ruled that bus segregation was unconstitutional.

The Integration of Central High School: The Little Rock Nine

The SCLC: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) was a major civil rights organization during this era.
The Little Rock Nine (September 1957): Nine African American students were admitted to Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, as part of the process of school integration.
Resistance by Governor Orval Faubus: The Governor of Arkansas actively blocked the nine students from entering the school by deploying the National Guard to prevent their admission.
The Experience of Elizabeth Eckford: One of the nine students, Elizabeth Eckford, faced a traumatic experience when she was unable to enter the school and was harassed by an angry white mob.
Violence and Public Disorder: On the day the students first successfully entered Central High School, black reporters and bystanders were beaten by members of the crowd.
Local Police Action: The Little Rock police removed the nine students from the school shortly after they entered to ensure their physical safety from the rioting mob.
Federal Intervention by President Eisenhower: To uphold the law and protect the students, President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent federal troops to Little Rock to escort and protect the Black students.
State Obstruction in 1958: The following year, Governor Faubus took the extreme action of closing all public high schools in Little Rock to prevent further integration.
Notable Students: * Minnijean Brown: She was expelled from Central High School after reacting to the constant harassment she received from white students. * Ernest Green: He became the first Black graduate of Central High School.

The Sit-In Movement and SNCC

The Greensboro Sit-In (Woolworth’s): College students in Greensboro, North Carolina, took a stand against segregation by holding a sit-in at a "whites-only" lunch counter at a Woolworth’s department store.
Commitment to Nonviolence: Despite being targeted with aggressive physical and verbal attacks during these sit-ins, the college students remained peaceful and did not retaliate.
National Impact: The Greensboro Sit-In served as a catalyst, inspiring similar sit-ins and protests against segregation nationwide.
The SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee): The college students involved in these actions formed the SNCC to coordinate their efforts.
MLK and Political Intervention: Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested while participating in a sit-in. His release from a Georgia state prison was secured with the help of John F. Kennedy and Robert Kennedy.

Freedom Riders and Non-Violent Direct Action

Evolution of Tactics: The sit-in campaign marked a shift in the civil rights movement toward more direct forms of nonviolent protest.
Examples of Non-Violent Direct Action: Key examples include sit-ins, marches, and economic boycotts.
Interstate Travel Segregation: Although federal courts had outlawed segregation in interstate bus travel, the laws were not being enforced in the South.
The Freedom Riders: Activists known as Freedom Riders challenged this lack of enforcement by riding buses into the South to test the desegregation of bus terminals.
The Role of CORE: The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) organized and trained these activists in the principles of nonviolence before they began the freedom rides.
Southern Reaction: White southerners reacted to the Freedom Riders with extreme violence and mass arrests.
Case of Jim Zwerg: Jim Zwerg was a white activist who was severely beaten for his support of civil rights and participation in the movement.
Federal Action by President Kennedy: In response to the persistent commitment of the Freedom Riders despite the violence, President Kennedy ordered an end to segregation in all interstate travel facilities.

Key Legislation and Long-Term Effects

The Civil Rights Act of 1964: * Banned segregation in all public places. * Authorized the federal government to take action to desegregate schools. * Called for the prosecution of any individuals found violating the civil rights of others. * Established the EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) to monitor and prevent discrimination in the workplace.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965: * Officially banned the use of literacy tests as a requirement for voting. * Mandated that federal officials be sent to the South to directly register voters.
Three Major Effects of the Civil Rights Movement: 1. Political Representation: A significant increase in the number of African Americans elected to public office. 2. Affirmative Action: The creation of Affirmative Action programs where businesses and universities actively sought to hire, admit, and promote people of color. 3. Cultural Empowerment: An increased sense of pride and identity amongst African Americans across the country.