The Long Nineteenth Century: The Concert of Europe and the Balance of Power (1815-1914)

The Long Nineteenth Century, Part 1: The Concert of Europe and the Balance of Power (1815-1914)

Introduction

  • Overview of European Politics (1815-1914):

    • Notable that there were few minor great power wars during this period.

    • Bloodiest conflicts included:

    • Franco-Prussian War (1870–71): 57,000 soldiers lost their lives.

    • Crimean War (1853–56): 53,000 lives lost.

    • Contrast with prior conflicts like Napoleonic Wars and the Thirty Years War, which were much larger in scale.

  • Surprising Great Power Peace:

    • 19th century regarded as extremely turbulent socio-economic period, considered the most tumultuous in human history until the 20th century.

    • Key phenomena: The Industrial Revolution.

    • Economic growth per capita rose to 1% per year (up from 0.1% from 1500-1800).

    • Significant convergence of global prices for commodities observed.

      • Example: Price of wheat in Liverpool compared to Chicago over years:

      • 1870: Liverpool price exceeded Chicago by 57.6%

      • 1895: Exceeded by 17.8%

      • 1913: Exceeded by 15.6%

  • Global Connectivity:

    • By 1910, rail travel facilitated journeys from Lisbon to Beijing and included Korea by 1900.

    • First extensive unification of Eurasia via rail technology.

  • Information Transmission (Technological Advancement):

    • Example of rapid information turnaround:

    • News of Napoleon's Waterloo defeat reached Whitehall in 2.5 days; Rothschild received it within 24 hours.

    • January 8, 1815—Battle of New Orleans occurred despite peace signed December 24.

      • Mail times to London:

      • New York: 14 days

      • Cape Town: 30 days

      • Calcutta: 35 days

      • Shanghai: 56 days

      • Sydney: 60 days

    • Telecommunication advancement led to news delivery of Tsar Alexander II's assassination (12 hours) after 1881.

  • Trade Expansion:

    • Value of trade expanded ten-fold between 1850 and 1913.

    • Transport cost reduced to 2% of 1793 levels by 1906.

  • Colonial Dynamics:

    • Largest land grab in human history marked the 19th century, with European colonial domination expanded.

    • Intellectual reflection on paradoxical stability among great powers amid dramatic socio-economic transformations.

Protagonists

Britain

  • Great Power Status:

    • At its peak just after WW1, controlled 25% of the world's population and origins of the Industrial Revolution.

    • Britain's manufacturing output formed 25% of global production until US and Germany overtook it.

  • Influence on Globalization Infrastructure:

    • British ships carried 45% of world commercial tonnage (Germany at 11%).

    • By 1898, two-thirds of all telegraph lines were British.

    • London became a center for many sectors, including finance and insurance.

    • Pound sterling represented 40% of world currency reserves, defining the "Pax Britannica".

France

  • Colonial Empire:

    • France ranks second in terms of colonial possessions yet experiences a relative decline due to stagnant demographics.

  • Demographic Shift:

    • Historical population decline resulted in lesser influence compared to rising powers like Russia and Germany.

Russia

  • Emerging Power:

    • Expansion into Central Asia, adopt land-based colonial practices.

    • Transitioned Central Asia to cotton production to support core cities (St. Petersburg and Moscow).

    • Industrialization occurred albeit at a slower pace combined with railway expansions into conquered territories.

    • Transsiberian railway (1891-1916) and Trasnaral railway (finished in 1906).

Austria-Hungary

  • Great Power Status:

    • Lacks a colonial empire and is the weakest great power due to ethnic divisions among its populace.

    • The 1867 settlement recognized autonomy for Hungarian provinces, a compromise leading to vulnerabilities.

Prussia/Germany

  • Unification and Power:

    • Post-1871 emergence of the German Empire through diplomacy and military unification.

    • Rise in industrialization often rivaling that of Britain due to strong military reforms and effective diplomacy by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck.

Events

Background

  • Long-Term Historical Processes:

    • Focus on constant tension between industrialization/globalization and the Concert of Europe diplomacy.

A) 1848 Revolutions

  • Overview and Demographics:

    • Revolutions questioning political orthodoxy emerged, led by diverse societal actors: radical democrats, liberals, and nationalists.

    • Became the so-called 'springtime of the peoples.'

  • Great Powers Disagreement:

    • Tension within the Concert regarding whether to repress liberal regimes.

    • Austria and Russia favored conservatism; Britain and France leaned liberal.

  • Outcome and Responses:

    • Revolutions predominantly led to repression (e.g., Russia against Poland) or accommodation within conservative structures (e.g., Napoleon III's self-proclamation).

B) The ‘Eastern Question’

  • Decline of the Ottoman Empire and Russian Aggression:

    • Ottoman Empire's decline posed problems for European balance due to Russia's territorial ambitions.

    • Russian casus belli often justified as ‘protection of Christian populations.’

  • British Concerns:

    • The Ottoman Empire served as a buffer against Russian expansion into Mediterranean trade routes essential for British interests.

C) The Crimean War (1853-1856)

  • War Dynamics:

    • Britain and France intervened to support the Ottoman Empire against Russia.

    • The war marked the first significant confrontation between great powers post-Napoleonic era.

    • Siege of Sevastopol and overall limited territorial impact allowed Russia to maintain some stature despite setbacks.

D) Unification of Germany

  • Historical Context:

    • After Napoleon's fall, a German Confederation formed; initially favoring Austria.

    • Prussia, with its advantages in military reform and coherence as a nation-state, ultimately unified Germany.

  • Key Events:

    • Outcomes from victories over Austria and France led to the establishment of the German Empire in 1871 with Prussian monarchy at its helm.

    • Economic integration facilitated through Zollverein negotiations boosted the economic unity of the German states.

D1) Franco-Russian Alliance (1894)

  • Key Treaty Dynamics:

    • Revanchism in France after 1871 loss to Germany led to alliance formation with Russia post-Bismarck’s tactful management of treaty claims.

    • Franco-Russian treaty provided France the capacity for a two-front war against Germany, enhancing its military positioning.

D2) Anglo-German Naval Race

  • Security Dilemma:

    • Economic security fears over trade dependencies fueled an arms race between Britain and Germany, with potential wartime implications.

    • The British dependence on trade imports spurred naval preparedness.

Consequences

A) Material Conditions of First Globalization

  • Economic Growth Allowance:

    • Period of unprecedented peace fostered economic growth and interdependence despite geopolitical tensions.

    • The gold standard led to correlated national currencies.

B) Ideological Interpretations

  • Perception of Global Order:

    • Elites adhered to Social Darwinist perspectives, illustrating the transformation of international politics into a zero-sum competition.

    • Nationalism surged in public opinion, depicting imperialism as a necessary trajectory.

C) Pre-WW1 Dynamics

  • Discussion of Bifurcated International Order:

    • The Concert of Europe maintained a detachment from the harsher realities of imperialistic warfare until WW1, which would blur these boundaries.