(114) DETAILED Carbon Cycle and Energy Security Overview | A Level Geography Revision

The Geological Carbon Cycle

The geological carbon cycle, also known as the natural carbon cycle, involves the movement and storage of carbon between land, ocean, and atmosphere.
Inorganic carbon is found in rocks, bicarbonate, and carbonate.
Organic carbon is found in plant material and living organisms.
Gaseous carbon is found as carbon dioxide ( $CO2$ ) and methane ( $CH4$ ) in the atmosphere.
Balance exists between production and absorption, or between sources and sinks, within the natural carbon cycle.
It may take a long time for equilibrium to be reached.
Stores are terrestrial, oceanic, or atmospheric.
Fluxes are the movements or transfers of carbon between the stores.
A carbon sink takes in more carbon than it emits (e.g., an intact rainforest).
A carbon source emits more carbon than it stores (e.g., a damaged tropical rainforest).
Carbon is present in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide ( $CO2$ ) or methane ( $CH4$ ).
In the hydrosphere, carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ).
In the lithosphere, carbon is present as carbonate in limestone and fossil fuels like coal, gas, and oil.
In the biosphere, carbon is present in living and dead organisms.
Carbon sequestration is the transfer of carbon from the atmosphere to other stores (both natural and artificial).
Plants sequester carbon when they photosynthesize and store carbon in their mass.

Main Carbon Stores (in order of Magnitude)

Marine sediments and sedimentary rocks in the lithosphere:
- Long-term storage, the largest carbon store.
- $66,000$ to $166,000$ million billion metric tons of carbon.
- The rock cycle and continental drift recycle rock over time, which may take thousands to millions of years.
Oceans (hydrosphere):
- Dynamic store, the second biggest store.
- $38,000$ billion metric tons of carbon.
- The carbon is constantly being utilized by marine organisms, lost as output to the lithosphere, or gained as input from rivers and erosion.
Fossil fuel deposits (lithosphere):
- Long-term but currently dynamic.
- Fossil fuel deposits are rarely changing over short periods of time, but humans have developed technology to exploit them rapidly.
- Contains $4,000$ billion tons of metric carbon.
Soil organic matter (lithosphere):
- Mid-term store.
- Soil can store carbon for over 100 years, but deforestation, agriculture, and land-use change are affecting this store.
- $1,500$ billion metric tons of carbon are stored here.
Atmosphere:
- Dynamic store.
- Human activity has caused carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) levels in the atmosphere to increase by around 40% since the Industrial Revolution, causing unprecedented change to the global climate.
- This store holds 750 billion metric tons of carbon.
Terrestrial plants and biosphere:
- Mid-term but very dynamic.
- These are vulnerable to climate change and deforestation, as a result of carbon storage in forests declining annually in some areas of the world.
- $560$ billion metric tons of carbon are stored in these stores.
The lithosphere is the main store of carbon, with global stores unevenly distributed.
- The oceans are larger in the Southern Hemisphere.
- Storage in the biosphere is mostly occasional land, terrestrial plant storage is focused in the tropics and in the Northern Hemisphere.

Fluxes of the Carbon Cycle

Fluxes are the transfers in the carbon cycle that drive and cause change over time.
They have impacts of varying magnitude over different lengths of time.
Biological and chemical processes determine how much carbon is stored and released.
The role of living organisms is important in maintaining the system.

Photosynthesis

Living organisms convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and water from the soil into oxygen and glucose using light energy.
By removing carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) from the atmosphere, plants sequester carbon and reduce the potential impacts of climate change.
The process of photosynthesis occurs when chlorophyll in the leaves of the plant reacts with carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) to create carbohydrate glucose.
Photosynthesis helps to maintain the balance between oxygen and carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) in the atmosphere.

Respiration

Occurs when plants and animals convert oxygen and glucose into energy, producing the waste products of water and carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ).
Plants photosynthesize, absorbing significantly more carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) than they emit from respiration.
During the night, plants do not photosynthesize, but they do respire, releasing more carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) than they absorb.
Overall, plants absorb more carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) than they emit, serving as a net carbon dioxide absorber from the atmosphere and a net oxygen producer to the atmosphere.

Combustion

When fossil fuels and organic matter such as trees are burnt, they emit carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) into the atmosphere.
This may occur when fossil fuels are burned to produce energy or if wildfires occur.

Decomposition

When organisms die, they are broken down by decomposers such as bacteria, which respire, returning carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) into the atmosphere.
Some organic matter is also returned to the soil, where it is being stored, adding to the carbon matter of the soil.

Diffusion

The oceans can absorb carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) from the atmosphere, which has increased ocean acidity by 30% since pre-industrial levels.
With carbon levels increasing, seawater becomes more acidic and is harming aquatic life through coral bleaching.
Many of the world's coral reefs are now under threat.

Sedimentation

This can happen on land or in the sea.
When a shelled marine organism dies, their shell fragments fall to the ocean floor and become compacted over time to form limestone.
Organic matter from vegetation and decaying marine organisms is compacted over time, whether on land or in the sea, to form fossil fuel deposits.

Weathering and Erosion

Inorganic carbon is released slowly through weathering.
Rocks are broken down by weathering.
Carbonation weathering occurs when carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) in the air mixes with rainwater to create carbonic acid, which aids erosion of rocks such as limestone.
The carbon is moved through the water cycle and enters the oceans.
Marine organisms use the carbon in the water to build their shells.
Increasing carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) levels in the atmosphere may increase weathering and erosion as a result, potentially affecting other parts of the carbon cycle.

Metamorphosis

Extreme heat and pressure form metamorphic rock, during which some carbon is released and some becomes trapped.

Volcanic Outgassing

There are pockets of carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) found in the Earth's crust.
During a volcanic eruption or from a fissure in the Earth's crust, this carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) can be released.

Variation in Carbon Fluxes

The quickest cycle is completed in seconds as plants absorb carbon for photosynthesis and then release carbon when they respire.
This cycle can slow down when levels of light or carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) drop.
Dead organic matter in soil may hold carbon for hundreds of years.
Some organic materials may become buried so deeply that they don't decay or are buried in conditions that are unfavorable to decayers, such as low-lying gas or too much water.
This material will become sedimentary rocks or hydrocarbons by geological processes.

Complete Carbon Processes

Oceans are the largest carbon stores; they are 50 times larger than the atmosphere, with 93% of carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) stored in oceanic algae, plants, and coral.
Lots of processes occur simultaneously within the ocean to store these large amounts of carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ).
This transfer of carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) into the ocean is called ocean sequestration.
Small changes in oceanic carbon levels have significant global impacts.
The carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) gas exchange between the atmosphere and the ocean operates on different timescales.
The majority of the processes that take the carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) out of the atmosphere and into the top of the ocean occur in the top surface layer, which makes up only a small proportion of the world's water in the oceans.
The carbon-rich water layer, surface layer, is then transferred down to the lower layers of the ocean and transported around the world due to thermal and circulation.

The Biological Carbon Pump

Phytoplankton are microscopic organisms that photosynthesize, taking in carbon and turning it into organic matter.
Half of the planet's biomass consists of phytoplankton.
When they get eaten, carbon is passed through the food chain.
Carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) is also released back into the water as these organisms respire.
Some organisms, like plankton, sequester carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ), turning the carbon into hard outer shells and inner skeletons.
When these organisms die, some of their shells dissolve into the ocean water, meaning that the carbon becomes part of the ocean.

Dead Sea Currents

Any dead organism which sinks to the seafloor becomes buried and compressed, eventually forming limestone sediments.
Through sedimentation over a long time period, these can turn into fossil fuels.
Some carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) from the atmosphere will be naturally dissolving into the water.
This process occurs on the surface of the ocean, where carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
As the concentrations of carbon dioxide ( $CO2$ ) in the atmosphere increase, oceans absorb more carbon dioxide ( $CO2$ ), causing them to be more acidic.
This acidification of the oceans could have long-lasting effects.
Some carbon will go from the water back into the atmosphere.

The Physical Pump

There will come a point where the surface layer of the ocean will become so saturated with carbon that this process will slow down or stop occurring.
Oceanic circulation provides a constant source of new water on the surface while transferring surface water into the deep ocean.
Water is not stored evenly within this.
Carbon is not stored evenly within the water.
The colder the water, the more carbon dioxide ( $CO2$ ) is absorbed, so the concentration of carbon dioxide ( $CO2$ ) in the ocean is different around the world.
Carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) concentration is 10% higher in the deep ocean compared to the surface of the ocean.
Polar regions hold more carbon than the tropical regions.
Warm tropical water releases carbon dioxide ( $CO2$ ) into the atmosphere, while the cold high-latitude oceans absorb carbon dioxide ( $CO2$ ) from the atmosphere.

Thermohaline Circulation

Thermohaline circulation is an ocean current that produces both vertical and horizontal circulation of warm and cold water around the Earth's oceans.
Atmospheric circulation creates large currents in the oceans, which transfers water from the warmer regions to the cold polar regions.
The rate of circulation is slow; it takes around a thousand years for any cubic meter of water to travel around the entire system.
Warm surface waters are depleted of carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) and nutrients, and therefore the foundation of the planet's food chain depends on cold and nutrient-rich water, which supports algae to grow.
Water in the North Atlantic is very saline, which means it's denser and heavier, causing it to sink.
When the cold water sinks, warm water is drawn up to the surface.
Eventually, cold water is drawn from the bottom of the ocean and then warmed up.
The main current begins in the polar oceans, where the water is very cold.
Surrounding seawater sinks due to higher density.
The current is recharged as it passes the Atlantic, the Antarctica, by extra cold salty dense water.
Division of the main current as it passes Antarctica by extra cold salty water leads to the northward to the Indian Ocean and southward to the West Pacific.
The two branches warm and rise as they travel northwards, then loop back southward and westward.
The now warm surface water continues circulating around the globe on that eventual return to the North Atlantic, where it cools, and the cycle begins again.
The rate of absorption of carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) in the waters depends on ocean temperatures.
The colder the water, the more carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) that's absorbed.
As ocean temperatures increase, the oceans will absorb less carbon dioxide ( $CO2$ ), possibly even emitting some of its stored carbon dioxide ( $CO2$ ).
This will accelerate climate change and lead to further ocean warming, a positive feedback mechanism.
The role of the oceans in regulating climate and greenhouse gas emissions is essential to the Earth.

Terrestrial Sequestration

Primary producers sequester carbon through the process of photosynthesis.
All living things either release or intake carbon.
Primary producers take carbon from the atmosphere to photosynthesize and release carbon when they respire.
Vegetation growth depends on water, nutrients, and sunlight.
When consumers eat plants, carbon from the plants is converted into fats and proteins.
Microorganisms feed on material waste from plants and animals.
Animal and plant remains are easier to decompose compared to wood.
Decomposition is faster in tropical climates with high rainfall, temperatures, and oxygen levels.
95% of trees' biomass consists of carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ), which is sequestered and converted to cellulose.
The amount of carbon stored in trees depends on the balance of respiration and photosynthesis.

Carbon Fluxes Due to Terrestrial Organisms

Diurnally, during the day, fluxes are positive from the atmosphere to the ecosystem, whereas at night, fluxes are negative from the atmosphere to the ecosystem.
Seasonally in the Northern Hemisphere, during winter, plants die and decay, leading to high atmospheric carbon dioxide ( $CO2$ ) concentrations, but during spring, when plants begin to grow, carbon dioxide ( $CO2$ ) levels in the atmosphere begin to drop.
Different amounts of carbon are stored worldwide, and one of the stores that is actually changing is trees.
Tropical areas such as Brazil and Indonesia have seen a decrease in carbon stocks of around 5 gigatons of carbon in the last 25 years, but Russia, the USA, and China have seen increases of 0.3, 2.9, and 2.3 gigatons, respectively.
Non-tropical forests have seen an increase in carbon sequestration in recent years, especially in Europe and Eastern Asia, due to the conversion of agricultural land and plantations to new forests.
Forests in industrial areas are expected to increase by 2050, but in the global South, forested areas will decrease.
Rates of forest loss have decreased from 9.5 million hectares in the year 1990 to 5.5 million in the years between 2010 and 2015.
Trees with the largest forested areas are Russia, Brazil, China, Canada, the USA, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Australia, and Indonesia.
Brazil has the most stored carbon on land and the most extensive deforested area.
China has the largest amount of forested area.
Net primary productivity refers to the amount of carbon absorbed by forests.
For tropical forests, it is positive all year round, but deciduous forests can have a negative NPP in winter; however, across the whole year, the NPP is positive.

Soil Capacity to Store Carbon

Soils store between 20% and 30% of the world's carbon.
The amount of carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) sequestered or emitted depends on local conditions.
In arid or semi-arid soils, the most important stores, any loss by a plant to the ground means that some carbon will transfer to the soil.
Soil microbes break down plants and release carbon to the atmosphere after organisms die.
Thousands of compounds in soil are decomposed.
The most long-term process in the formation of fullness is the formation of humus.
It has a dark rich color, and 60% of it contains carbon.

Factors Affecting Soil Capacity to Store Organic Carbon

Climate affects the run-off rates of plant growth and microbial activity and decomposition.
- Decomposition occurs at a faster rate in places with higher temperatures and rainfall.
Soil type:
- Clay-rich soils contain more carbon than sandy soils.
The use of soils, land use, cultivation, and disturbance can affect how much carbon can be held.
If plant residue is added to the soil at a faster rate than soil organisms can convert it to carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ), carbon will eventually be removed from the atmosphere and sequestered into the soil.

The Natural Greenhouse Effect

The Earth has a temperature control system that relies on the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
The Earth's climate is driven by incoming short-wave solar radiation.
Around 31% is reflected by the clouds and gases in the atmosphere.
The remaining 69% is absorbed by the Earth's surfaces and oceans.
69% of surface absorption is re-radiated to space as long-wave radiation.
A large proportion of long-wave radiation is radiated back to the Earth by the clouds and greenhouse gases.
Constant levels of carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) help to maintain stable average temperatures worldwide.
Before the Industrial Revolution, the natural greenhouse effect was constant.
The slow carbon cycle, volcanism, and sedimentation have been fairly constant over the last few centuries.
Natural exchanges between the slow and fast sections of the carbon cycle were relatively small, and there were small variations in atmospheric carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) until the late 19th century.

Anthropogenic Interference

A balanced carbon cycle is very important in maintaining other global systems.
Since the 1750s, when industrialization began in the UK, global concentrations of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide ( $CO2$ ) and methane ( $CH4$ ) have increased by more than 25% since the 1980s.
75% of carbon emissions have come from burning fossil fuels.
Human activities have led to more carbon being released into the atmosphere and less being absorbed.
Land-use change accounts for a tenth of carbon release annually, and it impacts short-term stores in the carbon cycle, such as the soil and the atmosphere.
Around 70% of deforestation is for cattle ranching.
Cattle produce significant amounts of methane, further contributing to global warming.
Fertilizers are also a significant source of greenhouse gases, as well as rice paddy fields, from which methane emissions have increased as a result of increased productivity due to higher carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) levels.
More suitable grains and seeds, like quinoa, have been considered as substitutes which require less water to grow.

Deforestation

Accounts for about 20% of all greenhouse emissions.
The main impact is when the carbon cycle is interrupted and the land is used for other purposes, reducing carbon sequestration and turning the land into a carbon source rather than a carbon sink.

Urbanization

This is the process of replacing countryside with buildings and similar infrastructure.
It affects the local and global carbon stores, where replacing vegetation and covering soils.
Urban areas occupy 2% of the world's landmass but account for 97% of all human-caused global carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) emissions.
Cement releases carbon dioxide ( $CO2$ ) during production, contributing to 7% of global carbon dioxide ( $CO2$ ) emissions each year.
Sustainable options for recycling concrete are being developed.
Combustion of fossil fuels results in carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ), sulfur, and particulates being released into the atmosphere.
If combustion occurs in a hot engine, nitrogen dioxide ( $NO_2$ ) will also be released, as nitrogen from the air fuses with oxygen.
The amount of carbon is measured in gigatons or pentagrams.
Burning fossil fuels has added more than 180 gigatons to the carbon of the atmosphere.

Implications of the Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

The amount of solar energy reaching the Earth varies depending on location and is the main factor in determining climate temperatures.
Solar intensity is more intense at the equator and reduces as you travel towards the poles.
The Albedo effect will also determine the temperature of a location.
Snow reflects solar radiation, whereas dark forests absorb the most solar radiation.

Climate Rise

Carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) levels in the atmosphere are believed to be the main contributor to an increase in global temperatures that vary across the globe.
In Europe, average temperatures are expected to increase more than the global average.
The largest increases are expected in Eastern and Northern Europe during winter and Southern Europe during summer.
Annual precipitation is expected to increase in Northern Europe but decrease in Southern Europe.
Extreme weather events are likely to increase both in frequency and intensity.

Precipitation

Solar radiation is most intense at the equator, so convection of rainfall is common, and rainfall is generally very high when convectional rainfall is most likely to occur.
Rainfall occurs at subtropical highs, mid-latitudes, and the poles when air submerges and cools.
Water vapor condenses to form clouds and precipitation.
Where air rises, the air heats up, and moisture will evaporate, which can create dry weather conditions.
Ecosystems help to regulate the carbon and hydrological cycles; global warming could impact the functioning of ecosystems.
The two biomes most at risk are the Arctic and coral ecosystems.
Species with low population numbers are already at high risk.
There is already evidence showing that there will be changes in species population size, the timing of reproduction, and migration.
Marine organisms are also at risk and threatened with low oxygen levels and high rates of acidification.

Systems in Low-Lying Areas

Sea levels rising could continue.
The Arctic region is warming twice as fast as the global average.
Melting permafrost releases methane and carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ), which increases the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
This could lead to further global warming and even more melting of snow and ice, establishing a positive feedback loop.
The Arctic tundra ecosystem has significantly changed.
Rapid warming has contributed to extensive melting of snow and ice during the summer months.
Shrubs and trees, which previously couldn't live in the Arctic, have begun to grow in Alaska.
The red fox has now spread northwards and competes with the arctic fox for food and territory.
When permafrost melts, the carbon may remain in the soil, and warmer temperatures lead to more decomposition, which uses carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ).

The Hydrological Cycle

There is an increased rate of evaporation, leading to more moisture being held in the atmosphere rather than in the ocean.
There's an increase in surface permafrost temperatures, less sea ice and glacier storage, a change in the capacity of terrestrial ecosystems, and a change in river discharge.
There is an increased risk of flooding in winter and droughts in summer.

Energy Security

Maximum energy security refers to uninterrupted availability of energy resources and affordable long-term energy security.
Mainly deals with timely investments to supply energy and sources that will match economic development and environmental needs.
Short-term energy security focuses on the availability of energy systems to react promptly to sudden changes in the balance between energy demand and energy supply.

Key Points About Energy Security

Generally evaluated at a national level; countries are either energy secure or insecure.
Four aspects of supply: availability, accessibility, affordability, and reliability.
Requires an accurate prediction of future energy.
Countries that are most energy secure are those who can meet their energy demand using supply from within their boundaries.
A good quality energy supply is consistent and secure and can be relied upon year-round.
There is unlikely to be any geopolitical problems, and there is little risk from changing climatic conditions or natural hazards.
A good quality energy supply involves different sources which contribute to the energy mix.
Energy security is important for the functioning of the country and particularly its economy, including the operation of most modes of transport, lights in towns and cities, heating homes, domestic appliances, and it's necessary for most forms of manufacturing.

Managing and Measuring Energy Usage

Energy consumption is usually measured per capita, per person, on the following measures:
- Equivalent kilograms of oil per year.
- Gigajoules per year.
- Megawatt-hours per year.
Energy intensity is an alternative measure of how efficiently a country is using its energy in cost of energy used per unit of GDP.
A high energy intensity indicates a high price of or cost of converting energy into GDP.
Energy intensity decreases with development; energy is used more efficiently, and so the cost per unit of GDP reduces.

The Energy Mix

The energy mix refers to a range and proportion of energy produced by methods of production.
Non-renewable fossil fuels like oil, gas, and coal.
Recyclable fuels like nuclear energy and general waste.
Renewable energy like wind, solar, and geothermal.
The global energy mix is dominated by fossil fuels.
Primary energy sources produce energy using a raw material, whereas secondary sources are modified primary sources, which are easier to use, like petrol, intercoal, and electricity.

Primary Energy Sources

Coal accounts for 27% of global energy production.
Usage is decreasing as China shifts its energy mix away from coal and less polluting energy sources are used.
Most production occurs in China, ahead of the USA and India.
Petroleum oil accounts for 32% of global energy production.
Usage is still increasing as global energy demand increases.
The most usage is in the USA, China, and India, with greater production in the USA, Saudi Arabia, and Russia.
Natural gas accounts for only 50% of coal and is the center of global production, which is increasing year on year.
This production is in the USA, Russia, and Iran, and the greatest consumption is in the USA, Russia, and China.
Uranium has a very low carbon footprint and accounts for 4% of global energy production, with the most production in Kazakhstan and the greatest amount of nuclear fission energy produced in the USA.
Production is likely to increase in the future.
Biomass is burned to produce energy and produces a large proportion of energy in LICs.
In higher-income countries, biomass is being used more efficiently to produce energy, such as biodiesel.
Hydroelectric power is very efficient.
Hydropower has been used for many years as a renewable source of energy but only accounts for a very small percentage of global energy production; this is expected to increase globally, but with a decrease in some LICs.
Solar energy usage is increasing rapidly year-on-year as technology for solar power becomes cheaper.
China has the largest installed capacity; their production is much lower due to climatic conditions.
Wind produces the most energy of renewable sources, with the greatest production and capacity in China and offshore is increasing too.
Wave: Very low generation, though technology is developing.
Tidal power: There are only a handful of installed tidal power systems on a global scale.
Geothermal energy is very efficient and reliable.
It is popular in countries with a volcanic setting and is likely to increase.

Energy Players

Key players have important roles in securing energy pathways and controlling prices.
They explore, exploit, and develop energy resources, their own supply lines, and invest in the distribution and processing of raw materials, responding to market conditions to increase profits.
Most energy players are TNCs, although there are some exceptions, such as Russia's state-run Gazprom.
TNCs are the most prominent energy players for a variety of reasons.
- Some TNCs have more economic value than a small country, enabling the company to take action and invest in large-scale projects that a country cannot afford.
- TNCs can bypass political tensions and access sources otherwise restricted by other countries.
- TNCs are inclined to invest in local infrastructure, logistics, and development of workers' villages.
- The TNCs benefit from faster transport lengths and a happier workforce, while the government receives free investment.
TNCs may encourage environmental degradation, exploit workers, and unsustainable transportation.

OPEC

OPEC is an IGO with member countries which produce oil and petroleum.
OPEC controls 81% of the world's discovered oil reserves.
Their mission is to unify the petroleum policies of its members to ensure the stabilization of oil markets.
They also want to create an efficient and regular supply of oil to their consumers, a steady income for producers, and a fair return for those investing in the industry.
In the past, OPEC set quotas depending on the condition of the world economy; supplies were boosted when demand rose, and supplies were cut when demand fell.
OPEC has been accused of holding back production in order to increase prices.
This can be detrimental to developing countries that need vast cheap amounts of oil to continue economic development and manufacturing.

National Governments

Governments try to secure supply and secure energy supplies for their country, and they also regulate the role of private companies.
EU governments are trying to reduce carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) emissions and reduce dependency on fossil fuels.
Consumers create demands with purchasing choices, usually based on price, buying locally sourced, environmentally friendly, reliable energy supply during winter and extreme weather.

The Effect of Human Geography on Energy Supply

Countries are interdependent for energy sources; they import energy from other countries.
This has geopolitical implications and requires cooperation from other countries.
Energy may be used by countries as a political tool to cause or resolve tension between countries.
TNCs may help if there are good links for countries who can then compensate for a building through a pipeline through their landscape.
TNCs may be forced by powerful governments to spend additional money on protecting a landscape, even if that would make no economic sense to the TNC.
Energy supply can be influenced by physical and human geography, TNCs, geopolitics, community groups, and activists.

Problems With Achieving Energy Security

There is a mismatch between the supply and demand for fossil fuels largely due to inequality of wealth and development, natural resource supplies, and industrialization.
Consumption of coal is declining worldwide more than other fossil fuels.
Over half of the world's oil comes from APAC and North American nations; however, since Europe has the largest demand for oil, it produces very little oil.

Energy Pathways

Pipelines are efficient in carrying billions of cubic meters of oil across the world, dependent on international agreements, which influence global politics.
Around half of the world's oil is transported using an oil tanker through choke points which can be easily disrupted.
If choke points become blocked or threatened, then oil prices can rise very quickly, and political tensions escalate.
Ukraine is considered a choke point in the EU supply of oil, and with increasing uncertainty in Ukraine and relations with Russia, the EU supply could become increasingly insecure.

Political Conflict

World creations can severely limit energy security.
Military conflict can destroy infrastructure, restricting the flow of energy from source to use.
Disagreements between nations will also limit energy security, as is the case for Russia, which has several political sanctions against it, as Russia is a major supplier to Europe.

Alternative Energy Sources

Some aim to increase the supply of fossil fuels, keeping energy prices low and improving energy security, while some new alternative sources aim to reduce carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) and greenhouse gas emissions while still meeting demand.

Unconventional Fossil Fuels

Shale gas, which is extracted using fracking, has received major environmental opposition; however, it provides 25% of the US's energy needs.
Water, chemicals, and sand are pumped into the ground to break up the shale, access the hydrocarbons, and force them to the surface.
Horizontal drilling helps to remove gas reserves.
Advantages:
- Less polluting than coal and oil.
- Requires a large amount of water.
- Could provide boosts to the economy.
- The Royal Academy of Engineers believes we can make fracking safe.
Disadvantages:
- Wastewater needs treating due to chemical contents.
- May pollute the groundwater aquifers (water has become flammable due to pollution by fracking in the USA).
- Earthquakes of low magnitude may occur.
- The IPCC suggests it would be irresponsible to use shale gas.
Deepwater oil faces larger risks during extraction.
Advantages are that many engines and appliances are designed to operate on oil, therefore to continue to extract oil would avoid large changes to many important engines such as vehicles, planes, etc.

Tar Sands

Have large environmental costs but can be lucrative in profit and employment opportunities.
They create economic growth and a large influx of jobs for rural regions and are a fast-growing industry producing high-value bitumen for international exportation.
Disadvantages are that the volume of extracted bitumen is water and energy-intensive, producing a large volume of waste.
The liquid waste is left in tailing ponds so water can be recycled after it separates from the clay and salts.
However, tailing ponds may also contain sulfate, chloride, and ammonia, which may infiltrate into groundwater stores and other water sources.

Alternatives to Fossil Fuels

New reserves and technologies have been developed to support low to support further resource exploitation.
Currently, new reserves are being discovered at a lower rate rather than immediately exploited.
Environmental groups suggest that fossil fuel exploration should stop immediately and renewable energy be used instead.
In countries like Bahrain, which is 75% reliant on oil for their GDP, this is not an economically viable or sustainable solution.

Renewable Energy

Likely to be an important component of the future energy mix, with a low carbon footprint.
The technology is always improving and becoming more efficient.
Each renewable resource has advantages and disadvantages, though as time progresses, the disadvantages should decrease as the technologies are improved.
All have the disadvantage of visual unappealing and causing minor disturbances to the local environment.

Nuclear Power

Is considered to be a