Sociology and Sociological Theories
Overview
What is Sociology?
Sociology is the study of society and an individual’s relation within that society and the study of social problems
Studies of human societies can be observed either through a large scale perspective or within one-to-one human interactions:
Macro-level Sociology:
large scale perspective, looking at big phenomena that affect a big portion of the population
Premise: how the big picture influences individual behavior
deals with matters like poverty, war, healthcare, and world economy
Has a top-down view on sociological issues
Theories that look from a macroperspective includes functionalism and conflict theory
Micro-level Sociology:
an interpretive analysis of the society whereby just a sample of the society is considered
Premise: how individuals influence the big picture
deals with face-to-face interactions, families, schools, and other social interactions
Has a bottom-up view on sociological issues
focuses on the smallest building blocks of society and builds up to larger structures
Theories that look from a microperspective include symbolic interactionism
There are a total of 6 theories:
Functionalism
Conflict Theory
Social Constructionism
Symbolic Interactionism
Feminist Theory
Rational Choice/Exchange Theory
Durkheim, Marx, and Weber are considered to be the founding fathers of sociology.
Macro-level Sociological Theories
Functionalism
A system of thinking that looks at society from a large-scale perspective to understand how each of the structures and parts of society helps keep the society stable and functioning
TLDR: How society functions as a whole and the interdependence of parts
Based on the ideas of Emile Durkheim, who imagined a balance between institutions and social facets.
Institutions:
Structures that meet the needs of society
ex: education systems, financial institutions, marriage, laws, business, military, police force, mass-media, religion, nongovernmental organizations
Social facets:
Ways of thinking and acting formed by the society
existed before any one individual and will still exist after any one individual is dead
Unique objects that can’t be influenced by an individual
Have a coercive effect over the individual that are only noticed when we try to resist it
ex: the law, moral regulations, religious fates, kinship, social currents such as suicide/birthrate
one person committing suicide has no effect of the presence of suicide in the society (therefore the unique object of ‘suicide rate’ isn’t influenced by an individual)
A thing that many people do similarly because the socialized community that they belong to has influenced them to do these things
A ‘glue’ that maintains the coherence and stability of the community
Society is dependent on the structures that create it, and all structures work together to maintain a social equilibrium.
Every structure has a function that meets a need of society
Manifest functions: recognized and intended consequences of institutions
ex: businesses provide a specialized service
law provides order and schools provide educations
Latent functions: unrecognized and unintended consequences of institutions
ex: education and its hidden curriculum and businesses connect people across a society
Social dysfunction: a process that has undesirable consequences and may reduce the stability of society
Durkheim theorized how societies can stay together:
Small societies consist of self-sufficient individuals, but are still held together by their similarities
Small societies evolve into a large society in which individuals have become specialized and are therefore held together by the forces of mutual interdependence (individuals all become dependent on each other)
evolution of a small to a large society usually through population growth within a limited space
no longer enough land for everyone to have a farm and grow their own food, so one individual specialized and grows enough food for the entire community. The farmer then no longer has time to partake in other necessities like educating their kids or creating clothes, so those roles are taken taken on by those who no longer need to grow food.
Functionalism says that society tries to maintain ‘equilibrium’
A change in production/distribution/coordination will force others to adapt to maintain stable state society
ex: in response to the rise of online shopping such as Amazon, local businesses will adapt to new ways to cater to customs in order to restore balance, such as offering online shopping options
Social change upsets equilibrium and threatens the mutual interdependence of people in that sosciety
institutions and structures adapt only just enough to compensate for the change and maintain stability of mutual interdependence
Pros:
useful in understanding and examining the workings of society and the functions of its integral parts
Criticisms:
Functionalism focuses entirely on institutions without regards for the importance of the individual
Functionalism is unable to explain social change and conflict, since it is so focused on equilibrium of society that little change is modeled and no conflict can occur
the structures of a society adapt only just enough to find stability again
Conflict Theory
Focuses on inequality of difference groups within society
Views society as a battleground for limited resources, with social conflict between different groups
Based on the ideas of Karl Marx (eventually Weber and Gumplowicz too), who believed society evolved through stages:
Feudalism → Capitalism → Socialism
19th century Europe (during the time of Marx) was a capitalist society
significant economic inequality between the factory owners (upper class) and the factory workers (lower class)
Rich upper class (bourgeoisie) were the minority population
had more power (owned the factories and sold what they produced from the factories)
dependent on the lower class for labor (though wouldn’t be likely to admit this)
Poor lower class (proletariat) were the majority population
dependent on the upper class to get paid
Marx proposed a model whereby a capitalist society in which one group exploited another group economically and would eventually lead to its own destruction and would be later replaced by socialism
The thesis (the existing generally accepted state, the status-quo) of the society would cause the formation of the opposing antithesis (the reaction to the thesis, the push-back, the unrest, the opposition to the thesis)
In the 19th century example:
thesis: the bourgeoise running the factories and working class providing the labor
antithesis: the desire of working class to change the thesis, perhaps expressed as the formation of a class consciousness to overthrow the thesis when they realized they’re being exploited
The thesis and the antithesis cannot coexist peacefully
the struggle between the thesis and the antithesis leads to a synthesis (a compromise between the two groups that creates a new state)
ex of synthesis: members of the working class start to take on manager positions, creating a new class, ‘the middle class’
the synthesis becomes the new thesis itself, and eventually a new antithesis will form in opposition
there will always be a constant struggle of tension/unrest between the two opposing sides
“Each conflict between the status quo and its opposition resolves (through synthesis) into a new status quo, which just ‘waits’ for the next source of tension to come along”
ex: equal rights for african americans, the women’s suffrage movements, etc. where conflicts resolved in a new thesis
Pros:
Helps model drastic changes that occur in a society
Criticisms:
Fails to explain the stability a society can experience
Doesn’t explain how society is held together, despite some members not liking the status quo
Other contributing figures:
Ludwig Gumlowicz: expanded on Marx by proposing that society is shaped by war, conquest, and that cultural ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over others
Max Weber: agreed with Marx that inequalities in capitalist systems would lead to conflict, but did not believe that the collapse of capitalism was inevitable
introduced the idea of 3 independent factions (class, power, and status) all of which could be source of conflict
also argued that several factors moderate people’s reaction to inequality
Micro-level Sociological Theories
Symbolic Interactionism
Examines small scale social interactions and focuses on how meaning is established among individuals or small groups
focuses on interactions between individuals (ex: hanging out with a friend)
sees society as buildup of everyday typical interactions which can be used to explain social phenomena (ex: social order and change) in terms of meanings that people hold when they interact with one another
addresses the subjective meanings people believe to be true
meaning is the central aspect of human behavior, humans ascribe meanings to things and act towards those things based on ascribed meanings
language allows humans to generate meaning through interactions and modify meanings to thought processes
particular interest in symbols that people use to contribute values/beliefs to others
Theory was compiled from the teachings of George Herbert Mead
Mead believed that the development of the individual was social process, as were the meanings individuals assigned to things
people change based on interactions with objects, events, ideas, others, and assign meanings to things to decide how to act
Herbert Blumer continued Mead’s work and actually coined the term ‘symbolic interactionism’ to describe this theory of society. He proposed 3 principles to explain symbolic interactionism:
Actions are based on assigned meaning
Assigned meaning is based on social interactions
Assigned meanings aren’t permanent
Social interactions → Assigned meanings (non-permanent) → Actions
Pros:
gives a different perspective to sociology that is necessary for fully understanding society
allows us to explain how societies can change when created and recreated by social interactions
gives the individual the same importance as society as a whole
Criticisms:
doesn’t ask same questions as large scale sociologists do
sometimes considered as a supplemental theory instead of a full theory because it is restricted to studying small interactions between individuals
Looking Glass Self
the self is shaped by others, interaction with others, and perception of others
relates to symbolic interaction because symbolic interactionism is used as a type of ‘mirror’
uses judgement that people receive to measure their own worth, values, beliefs, and behaviors
Rational Choice/Social Exchange Theory
Rational Choice Theory (RCT)
addresses decision making via cost-benefit analyses
centers around economics
when people act in self interest, they are driven not only by money but also by personal desire and goals- what is best of them in ‘all directions’.
basic principle: individual behavior is based on rational analysis of the costs and benefits of their actions
a person will act as if they’re weighing the costs and benefits of each and every action, and choosing the one with the best outcome for themselves, such that they can maximize personal gain
rationality is a property of a series of choices, not one individual choice alone
how do we calculate value of these actions?
RCT assumes that an individual has preferences among the available choice alternative that allow them to state which option they prefer
3 main assumptions which result in a consistent, rankable set of options:
Completeness (every action can be ranked)
A>B>C
Transitivity
since A>B>C, then A>C
Independence of irrelevant alternatives
the addition of a fourth option ‘X’ won’t change the order of how the first 3 options were ranked, it simply adds to the existing order
A>B>C, and B>X>C, therefore A,B,X,C
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory is the application of RCT to social interactions
“Human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives.”
basic principle: individual behavior during social interactions is based on rational analysis of the costs and benefits of their actions
central to social exchange theory are the concepts of self interest and interdependence, which guide human interactions. We form relationships in order to benefit ourselves, because we depend on other people to live and therefore how we behave during social interactions is important for relationship forming (in terms of self-interest)
the costs and benefits of the actions must consider the social resources being exchanges- time, information, approval, prestige, etc.- to determine the value of a possible action
Social Exchange Theory looks at society as a series of interactions between individuals
Interactions are determined by weighing rewards and punishments of each action
if interaction results in reward, it is more likely to be repeated
rewards: social approval, money, gifts, positive gestures (a smile)
if interaction results in punishment, it is less likely to be repeated
punishments: negative gestures, social disapproval, public humiliation
Assumptions of Social Exchange Theory:
people wish to rationally maximize their profits (seek rewards and avoid punishments)
behavior that results in a reward is likely to be repeated
the more often a reward is available, the less value that award has
interactions operate within the social norms
people have access to the information they need to make rational choices
most human fulfillment comes form other people
the standards that people use toe evaluate interactions change over time, and are different from person to person (what might seem as a reward for one might be seen as a punishment for another)
(Social) Exchange Theory is used to study interpersonal interactions such as family relationships, work relationships, partner selection, parenting, etc.
Criticisms:
we aren’t truly rational and don’t always make rational decisions
some people’s choices are limited by social factors such as gender, ethnicity, class, and therefore have to make choices that aren’t always in their best interest
if actions only reflect an effort to benefit self, then why do people ever make actions that act in the best interest of others? (volunteering, altruistic behavior, etc.)
is it really possible to explain every single social structure by the actions of individuals?
makes relationships a linear process (even though relationships can jump forward or backwards)
Mixed-Level Theories
Social Constructionism (of Reality)
A theory proposed by Luckmann and Berger that suggests that knowledge and many other aspects of the world around us are not ‘real’ in themselves, but they only exist because we give them reality through social agreement and interactions
people actively shape their reality such as that reality is something constructed, not inherent
ex: nations, books, and money
these are social constructs that don’t exist in the absence of human society- they are just concepts or practices that everyone in society agrees to treat in a certain way, made entirely from the values of the society that created them
ex: money is just paper and metal that has no inherent value other than that we assigned to it
ex: nations are groups of people that happen to share a language or history
ex: books are just paper with scribbles
the concept of self is a social construct too- our identity is created by interactions with other people, and our reactions to the other people (and the expectations of society)
“Social constructionism depends on how the ‘society’ has ‘constructed’ the knowledge in our brains (it is society that has given value to money, or else, physically speaking, money is just a piece of paper with some drawing on it)”
“Social constructionism presumes that ideas (such as knowledge about health and disease) are created through historical processes that are socially defined and culturally distinct. For example, variation in mental illness classification across societies with different cultures suggests that such disorders are socially constructed.”
2 types of social constructionism:
weak social constructionism
proposes that social constructs are dependent on both brute facts and institutional facts
Brute facts: the most basic and fundamental facts, facts that act independently of us, scientific and natural phenomena, facts that don’t rely on other facts and can’t be explained by something else
Institutional facts: facts that are created by social conventions and do rely on definition by something else or another fact
ex: money depends on the piece of paper that we have assigned a value to
strong social constructionism
extreme view that state the whole of reality is dependent on institutional facts (reality and knowledge is entirely based on language, social habits, and social constructs) and there are no brute facts, no facts that just ‘exist’
ex: we just created the idea of quarks and the idea of everything we know to explain them
“only explains reality through the thoughts of humans, not using fundamental brute facts”
Feminist Theory
With roots in conflict theory, feminist theory examines women’s social roles and experience in education, family, and workforce
Developed from the feminist movements in the 19th and 20th centuries, the theory examines women’s social roles and experiences in education, family, and the workforce.
Feminism can be divided into waves or eras:
1st wave, 1900s: women’s suffrage- right to vote, own property, equal rights within marriage, and work for wages
2nd wave, 1960s-70s: social liberties- gender equality, equal pay, sexual destigmatization, and reproductive rights
3rd wave, since 1980s: intersexuality- how different social identities (gender, race, class, etc.) interact
Can be both macro and micro-leveled because it not only focuses on social structures at the macro-level, but also face-to-face interactions at the micro-level.
Different types of feminist theories:
OTHER DEFINITIONS
Anomie: Anomie refers to a state of normlessness or a breakdown of social norms and values in a society, leading to a sense of confusion, alienation, and lack of moral guidance.
Latent: In sociology, latent refers to hidden or underlying functions or meanings that are not immediately apparent or recognized in a social structure or behavior.
Manifest: Manifest refers to the obvious or explicit functions or meanings that are readily observable or recognized in a social structure or behavior.
Class consciousness: Class consciousness is a concept in Marxist theory that refers to the awareness and understanding of individuals belonging to a particular social class regarding their shared interests, common struggles, and potential for collective actions
Glass ceiling: The glass ceiling refers to an invisible barrier that prevents certain groups, particularly women and minorities, from advancing to higher positions in the workplace, despite their qualifications and abilities.
Glass escalator: The glass escalator is a phenomenon where men in female-dominated professions, such as nursing or teaching, tend to experience faster career advancement and higher salaries compared to their female counterparts.
Micro-level of sociology: The micro-level of sociology focuses on the study of small-scale interactions and individual behavior within social groups or communities. It examines how individuals shape and are shaped by social structures, norms, and interactions.
Macro-level of sociology: The macro-level of sociology examines large-scale social structures, institutions, and systems, such as governments, economies, and social classes. It analyzes how these structures influence society as a whole and the patterns of social behavior and inequality.
The three waves of feminism refer to distinct periods in the history of the feminist movement.
First Wave (late 19th to early 20th century): Focused on women's suffrage and legal rights, aiming to secure voting rights and equal treatment under the law.
Second Wave (1960s to 1980s): Emphasized gender equality in social, cultural, and political spheres. Advocated for reproductive rights, workplace equality, and an end to gender-based discrimination.
Third Wave (1990s to present): Embraced intersectionality, recognizing that gender inequality intersects with other forms of oppression. Focused on inclusivity, challenging gender norms, and empowering diverse voices.
Each wave built upon the achievements and challenges of the previous ones, contributing to the ongoing fight for gender equality.