Exam Study Notes

Iberian Peninsula & Portuguese Navigation

• Iberian Peninsula: Location of Spain and Portugal, key players in early exploration.
• Portuguese Navigation: Pioneered by Portugal in the 15th century.

Motivations for Exploration

• Driven by a desire for new trade routes to Asia, bypassing Ottoman control.

Henry the Navigator

• Henry the Navigator: Portuguese prince who sponsored exploration along the African coast.

Treaty of Tordesillas

• Treaty of Tordesillas: 1494 agreement between Portugal and Spain dividing newly discovered lands outside of Europe.

West Central Africa - Kongo/Ndongo

• Kongo and Ndongo: African kingdoms that interacted with the Portuguese.

Conversion of Kongo

• The Kongo ruling class converted to Christianity and adopted aspects of Portuguese culture.

Transatlantic Trade & Middle Passage

• Transatlantic Trade: Exchange of goods, people, and diseases between Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
• Middle Passage: Brutal journey of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean.

The Caribbean and Sugar

• Caribbean islands became major centers of sugar production, fueled by enslaved labor.

Spanish Conquistadores

• Spanish Conquistadores: Cortés and Pizarro conquered the Aztec and Inca empires, respectively.
  • Driven by Gold, God, and Glory.

Inca & Aztecs

• Inca: Andean empire conquered by Pizarro.
• Aztecs: Mesoamerican empire conquered by Cortés.
• Tenochtitlan: Aztec capital city, present-day Mexico City.
• Quetzalcoatl: Aztec deity whose return was prophesied

Cahokia

• Cahokia: Pre-Columbian Native American city (near present-day St. Louis), known for its mounds.

Beringia

• Beringia: Land bridge that once connected Asia and North America, used by early migrants.

Corn & Potatoes

• Corn and Potatoes: Key crops that originated in the Americas and spread worldwide.

Role of Disease

• Disease devastated Native American populations after contact with Europeans.

Native Americans of North America

• Diverse cultures and societies across different regions.

The Moundbuilders

• Native American cultures that constructed earthen mounds for various purposes.

Florida & St. Augustine

• Florida: Early Spanish colony.
• St. Augustine: Oldest continuously inhabited European-established settlement in the United States.

Importance of 1619 in Virginia

• First documented arrival of enslaved Africans in English North America.

Colonial Economies, Governments, Societies

• Virginia: Tobacco-based economy, House of Burgesses.
• Massachusetts: Puritan religious society, town meetings.
• South Carolina: Rice and indigo plantations, strict slave codes.
• Georgia: Buffer colony, initially excluding slavery.
• New York: Diverse population, Dutch origins.
• Pennsylvania: Quaker colony, religious tolerance.
• Maryland: Catholic colony, Act of Toleration.

Bacon’s Rebellion

• Bacon’s Rebellion: Uprising in Virginia due to grievances over land and Native American policy.

Indentured Servants vs. Slavery

• Indentured Servants: Labor system where people paid for passage to the New World by working for an employer for a fixed number of years.
• Slavery: System of forced labor and ownership of human beings.

Stono’s Rebellion

• Stono’s Rebellion: Slave revolt in South Carolina in 1739.
• Led to stricter slave codes, such as Act of 1740 in South Carolina.

Charter Generation & Plantation Generation

• Charter Generation: Early colonies established under royal charters.
• Plantation Generation: Colonies characterized by large-scale plantation agriculture.

Mercantilism

• Mercantilism: Economic system where colonies exist to benefit the mother country.

French Colonization of North America

• Focused on fur trade, alliances with Native Americans.

Immigration to Colonial America

• Various groups from Europe seeking economic opportunity and religious freedom.

Puritans vs. Separatists

• Puritans: Wanted to purify the Church of England.
• Separatists: Wanted to separate from the Church of England.

Columbian Exchange

• Columbian Exchange: Transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and culture between the Americas, West Africa, and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries.

De las Casas

• De las Casas: Spanish priest who criticized the treatment of Native Americans.

Zenger Trial

• Zenger Trial: Landmark case for freedom of the press in colonial America.

The Great Awakening

• The Great Awakening: Religious revival in the 1730s and 1740s.

Causes of the French and Indian War

• Territorial disputes over the Ohio River Valley.

French and Indian War

• French and Indian War: Conflict between Britain and France for control of North America.
• George Washington: Gained military experience during the war.
• Gen. Braddock: British general defeated near Fort Duquesne.
• William Pitt: British Prime Minister who turned the tide of the war.
• Fort Duquesne and Fort Necessity: Key locations in the Ohio River Valley.
• Ohio River Valley: Disputed territory between Britain and France for fur trade and land.

Old World vs. New World Tactics

• Traditional European warfare vs. guerilla tactics adapted to the American environment.

Treaty of Paris of 1763

• Treaty of Paris of 1763: Ended the French and Indian War, with Britain gaining vast territories.

Pontiac’s Rebellion

• Pontiac’s Rebellion: Native American uprising against British rule after the French and Indian War.

Proclamation Line of 1763

• Proclamation Line of 1763: Forbade colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains.

Direct vs. Indirect Taxes

• Direct Taxes: Paid directly by the consumer (e.g., Stamp Act).
• Indirect Taxes: Included in the price of goods (e.g., Townshend Acts).

Sugar Act

• Sugar Act: Tax on sugar and other goods imported into the colonies.

Stamp Act

• Stamp Act: Tax on printed materials, sparking widespread protest.

Stamp Act Congress

• Stamp Act Congress: Colonial delegates who met to প্রতিবাদ the Stamp Act.

Boycott

• Boycott: Refusal to buy British goods as a form of protest.

Declaratory Act

• Declaratory Act: British assertion of the right to legislate for the colonies.

Townshend Acts

• Townshend Acts: Taxes on various imported goods.

Tea Act

• Tea Act: Gave the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the colonies.

Boston Tea Party

• Boston Tea Party: Protest against the Tea Act, where colonists dumped tea into Boston Harbor.

Intolerable Acts

• Intolerable Acts: British laws passed in response to the Boston Tea Party, also known as the Coercive Acts.

Quebec Act

• Quebec Act: Extended Quebec's boundaries and granted religious freedom to Catholics.

Continental Army vs. Militias

• Continental Army: Organized colonial army led by George Washington.
• Militias: Citizen soldiers.

Loyalists and Patriots

• Loyalists: Colonists who remained loyal to the British crown.
• Patriots: Colonists who supported independence.

Committees of Correspondence

• Committees of Correspondence: Colonial networks for communication and coordination.

Importance of Ticonderoga

• Strategic fort captured by the Patriots early in the war, providing valuable cannons.

Declaration of Independence

• Declaration of Independence: Document declaring the colonies' independence from Britain.
• Thomas Jefferson: Author of the Declaration of Independence.
• Influence of Locke and the Enlightenment: Natural rights, social contract theory.

Concord Armory

• Concord Armory: Site of the first armed conflict of the Revolutionary War.

Campaign in the North/New England

• Early battles around Boston and New York.

Campaign in the Middle States

• Battles in New Jersey and Pennsylvania.

Importance of Saratoga

• Importance of Saratoga: American victory that convinced France to ally with the colonies.

Howe and Philadelphia

• British General Howe captured Philadelphia instead of reinforcing the northern campaign.

Franklin and France

• Benjamin Franklin secured French support for the American cause.

Impact of French Entrance

• French military and financial assistance was crucial for American victory.

Campaign in the South

• British shifted focus to the South to exploit Loyalist support.

Colonial Strategy in the South

• Guerrilla warfare and attrition wore down the British army.

Yorktown

• Yorktown: Decisive American victory that led to British surrender.

Alexis de Tocqueville

• Alexis de Tocqueville: French political thinker who wrote about American democracy.

Karl Marx and Theory of History

• Historical materialism and class struggle.

Revolution - Impact on Slavery

• Varying effects on slavery in different regions, with some Northern states abolishing it.

Women and Republican Motherhood

• Republican Motherhood: The idea that women should educate their children in civic virtue.

State Constitutions and Republic Style Governments

• States adopted republican constitutions with separation of powers.

Established Churches/Church and State/Freedom of Religion

• Movement towards separation of church and state and greater religious freedom.

Right to Vote - Property Requirement

• Voting rights initially limited to property owners.

Treaty of Paris of 1783

• Treaty of Paris of 1783: Ended the Revolutionary War, recognizing American independence.
  • Florida was given to Spain.

Articles of Confederation

• Articles of Confederation: First government of the United States, with a weak central authority.
  • Powers: Declare war, make treaties.
  • Weaknesses: Lack of power to tax or regulate interstate commerce.

Western Land Claims of Original States and Resolution

• States ceded western land claims to the national government.

Land Ordinance of 1785

• Land Ordinance of 1785: Set up a system for surveying and selling western lands.

Northwest Ordinance

• Northwest Ordinance: Established a process for admitting new states and banned slavery in the Northwest Territory.

Interstate Commerce vs. Intrastate Commerce

• Interstate Commerce: Trade between states.
• Intrastate Commerce: Trade within a state.

Shays’ Rebellion

• Shays’ Rebellion: Uprising by farmers in Massachusetts due to debt and taxes.

Constitutional Convention

• Constitutional Convention: Meeting to revise the Articles of Confederation, resulting in the U.S. Constitution.
• Preamble and Bill of Rights:
  • Preamble defines the purpose of the Constitution.
  • Bill of Rights guarantees individual liberties.
• Separation of Powers/Checks and Balances:
  • Division of government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
  • Each branch has checks on the power of the others.
• Presidential Election Process: Electoral College.
• Powers of Congress: Enumerated powers in the Constitution.
  • 10th Amendment: Powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states.
  • Elastic Clause: Congress can make laws "necessary and proper" for carrying out its powers.
• Impeachment: Process for removing a president or other official from office.
• Amendment Process: Process for changing the Constitution.
• Legislative Process: Process for making laws, "I’m Just a Bill".
• 3/5 Compromise: Agreement on how to count enslaved people for representation and taxation.
• VA and NJ Plans/Great Compromise:
  • Virginia Plan favored large states.
  • New Jersey Plan favored small states.
  • Great Compromise created a bicameral legislature with representation based on population in the House and equal representation in the Senate.
• Strict Constructionist and Loose Constructionist.
  • Strict constructionist interprets the constitution literally.
  • Loose constructionist interprets the constitution flexibly.
• Elastic Clause: Also known as the Necessary and Proper Clause, allows Congress to make laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers.
  • Implied Powers.

Washington Administration

• Hamilton’s Economic Plan
  • Assumption of state debts, creation of a national bank.
• Formation of Political Parties
  • Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.
• DC Compromise
  • Agreement to locate the capital in the South in exchange for Hamilton's plan.
• Protective Tariff vs. Tariff
  • Protective Tariff: Tax on imports to protect domestic industries.
  • A Tariff is a tax on imports or exports.
• Reasons for fully funding the National Debt
  • To establish creditworthiness.
• Report on Public Credit
  • Hamilton's proposal for managing the national debt.
• Whiskey Rebellion
  • Uprising by farmers in Pennsylvania over a whiskey tax.
• Washington Farewell Address
  • Warned against political factions and foreign entanglements.
• Federalist and Democratic-Republicans
  • Federalists: Supported a strong central government.
  • Democratic-Republicans: Favored states' rights and limited government.
• French Revolution and American Neutrality
  • Washington declared the US neutral in the conflict between France and Britain.
• Jay Treaty
  • Treaty with Britain to resolve outstanding issues.
• Pinckney Treaty
  • Treaty with Spain granting the US navigation rights on the Mississippi River.
• British Impressment
  • Seizure of American sailors by the British navy.
• Naturalization
  • Process for immigrants to become citizens.
• XYZ Affair
  • Diplomatic incident with France involving bribes.
• Quasi War with France
  • Undeclared naval conflict between the US and France.
• Convention of 1800
  • Ended the Quasi-War with France.
• Revolution of 1800
  • Jefferson's election, marking a peaceful transfer of power.
• Haitian Revolution
  • Slave revolt in Haiti that led to its independence.
• Alien and Sedition Acts
  • Controversial laws restricting immigration and freedom of speech.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

• Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: States' rights 주장ations проти Alien and Sedition Acts.

  Revolution of 1800 - Election of 1800

• Jefferson's election, marking a peaceful transfer of power.

Marbury v. Madison

• Marbury v. Madison: Established the principle of judicial review.

Judicial Review

• Judicial Review: Power of the Supreme Court to declare laws unconstitutional.

Louisiana Purchase

• Louisiana Purchase: Acquisition of French territory that doubled the size of the US.

Lewis and Clark

• Lewis and Clark: Explorers who mapped and documented the Louisiana Territory.

Impact of Napoleonic Wars on America/American Foreign Policy

• Disruptions to trade, leading to conflicts with Britain and France.

Embargo Act

• Embargo Act: Prohibited American ships from trading with foreign ports.

Non-Intercourse Act

• Non-Intercourse Act: Allowed trade with all nations except Britain and France.

Macon’s Bill #2

• Macon’s Bill #2: Reopened trade with both Britain and France, with a provision that if either nation stopped interfering with American shipping, the US would санкционировать trade with the other.

Causes of the War of 1812

• British impressment of American sailors, interference with trade, and support for Native American resistance.

Congressional Vote for War of 1812

• Divided along party lines, with Democratic-Republicans supporting the war.

Washington/Jefferson and Native American Policy

• Failed Assimilation, Ethnic Cleansing, and Genocide.

Tecumseh

• Tecumseh: Native American leader who organized resistance against American expansion.

War of 1812

• War of 1812: Conflict between the US and Britain.
• Native Americans allied with who fought against the US, and against Canadian invasion.

Hartford Convention

• Hartford Convention: Meeting of Federalist delegates who opposed the War of 1812.

The American System

• The American System: Policies to promote economic development, including a national bank, protective tariffs, and internal improvements.

Protective Tariff vs. Tariff

• Protective Tariff: Tax on imports to protect domestic industries.
• A Tariff is a tax on imports or exports.

Panic of 1819

• Panic of 1819: Financial crisis caused by over-speculation in land and risky lending practices.

Missouri Compromise

• Missouri Compromise: Agreement that admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, maintaining the balance in the Senate.

Tallmadge Amendment

• Tallmadge Amendment: Proposed banning slavery in Missouri.

Monroe Doctrine

• Monroe Doctrine: Declaration that the US would oppose European interference in the Americas.

Roads and Canals

• Roads and Canals: Improved transportation infrastructure, facilitating trade and westward expansion.

Impact of the US Steel Plow, Mechanical Reaper, Cotton Gin, Steamboat

• Increased agricultural productivity and facilitated transportation.

Market Revolution

• Market Revolution: Transformation of the American economy due to industrialization, transportation improvements, and commercialization.
• Innovation, Communication, and Transportation.

Growth of the RR

• Rapid expansion of railroads transformed transportation and trade.

Industrialization of America

• Shift from agrarian economy to manufacturing.

Second Middle Passage

• Second Middle Passage: The trade of enslaved people from the Upper South to the Lower South.

King Cotton

• King Cotton: Dominance of cotton production in the Southern economy.

Irish and German Immigration

• Large-scale immigration from Ireland and Germany due to economic hardship and political unrest.

Nativism

• Nativism: Political attitude of protecting the interests of native-born or established inhabitants against those of immigrants.

Know Nothings

• Know Nothings: Anti-immigrant political party.

Second Great Awakening

• Second Great Awakening: Protestant religious revival movement.

Shakers

• Shakers: Utopian religious community.

Election of 1824

• Election of 1824: Controversial election with no majority winner, decided by the House of Representatives.

Corrupt Bargain

• Corrupt Bargain: Allegation that Henry Clay supported John Quincy Adams in exchange for being appointed Secretary of State.

Election of 1828 and 1832

• Andrew Jackson's victories, marking the rise of Jacksonian democracy.

The Tariff Crisis

• The Tariff Crisis: Dispute over high tariffs that angered Southern states.

Tariff of Abominations

• Tariff of Abominations: High tariff passed in 1828, opposed by the South.

South Carolina

• South Carolina: Leading state in the opposition to the tariff.

John Calhoun

• John Calhoun: Advocated for states' rights and nullification.

Henry Clay

• Henry Clay: Proposed compromises to resolve the tariff crisis.

Native American Removal

• Native American Removal: Forced relocation of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands.

Five Civilized Tribes

• Five Civilized Tribes: Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole.

Assimilation vs. Resistance

• Some Native Americans attempted to assimilate, while others resisted removal.

Jackson and the Bank

• Jackson and the Bank: Andrew Jackson's opposition to the Second Bank of the United States.

Nicholas Biddle

• Nicholas Biddle: President of the Second Bank of the United States.

Role of Election of 1832

• Jackson's victory over Henry Clay, who supported the bank.

State Banks/Pet Banks

• State Banks/Pet Banks: State-chartered banks that received federal deposits after Jackson dismantled the national bank.

Panic of 1837

• Panic of 1837: Financial crisis caused by Jackson's economic policies and over-speculation.

Specie Circular

• Specie Circular: Required payment for public lands in gold or silver.

Universal White Manhood Suffrage

• Expansion of voting rights to all white men, regardless of property ownership.

Reform

• Reform: Movements aimed at improving society, including prison reform and the temperance movement.
• Dorothea Dix/Prison Reform
• Temperance Movement

Second Great Awakening

• Protestant religious revival movement.

White Abolitionism vs. Black Abolitionism

• White abolitionists versus enslaved people.

Forms of Emancipation in the North

• Gradual emancipation vs. immediate emancipation.

Massachusetts Model vs. Pennsylvania Model

• Massachusetts Model: Gradual emancipation through court decisions.
• Pennsylvania Model: Gradual emancipation through legislation.

American Colonization Society

• American Colonization Society: Advocated for the return of free African Americans to Africa.

William Lloyd Garrison and the Liberator

• William Lloyd Garrison: White abolitionist publisher of The Liberator.

Fredrick Douglass

• Frederick Douglass: Former enslaved man and prominent abolitionist.

Harriet Beecher Stowe

• Harriet Beecher Stowe: Author of Uncle Tom’s Cabin.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin

• Uncle Tom’s Cabin: Anti-slavery novel that had a profound impact on public opinion.

Southern Society and Demographics

• Dominated by a planter elite, with a large population of enslaved people.

Forms of Resistance and Rebellion

• Subtle acts of resistance, as well as organized revolts.

Turner’s Rebellion and Aftermath

• Turner’s Rebellion: Slave uprising led by Nat Turner in 1831.

Methods of Control

• Strict slave codes and violence were used to maintain control.

Southern Class System

• Planters, small farmers, and enslaved people.

Florida

• Acquired from Spain through the Adams-Onís Treaty.

Adams-Onís Treaty

• Adams-Onís Treaty: Treaty in 1819 between the United States and Spain that gave the United States Florida.

Northern Border of the United States

• Established through treaties with Britain.

American Settlement of Texas

• Americans began settling in Texas, which was then part of Mexico.

Reasons for Texas War of Independence

• Cultural and political differences between American settlers and the Mexican government.

Texas Annexation

• Texas was annexed by the United States in 1845.

54’40 or Fight

• Slogan advocating for the annexation of the Oregon Territory.

Manifest Destiny

• Manifest Destiny: Belief that the United States was destined to expand across the North American continent.

Mexican-American War

• Mexican-American War: Conflict between the United States and Mexico.

Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo

• Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo: Ended the Mexican-American War, with Mexico ceding vast territories to the United States.

California Gold Rush

• California Gold Rush: Migration to California after the discovery of gold in 1848.

Compromise of 1850

• Compromise of 1850: Package of laws that attempted to resolve the issue of slavery in the territories.

Fugitive Slave Law

• Fugitive Slave Law: Required the return of enslaved people who had escaped to free states.

Republican Party

• Republican Party: Formed in opposition to slavery.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

• Kansas-Nebraska Act: Allowed popular sovereignty to decide the issue of slavery in Kansas and Nebraska.

Dred Scott Decision

• Dred Scott Decision: Supreme Court ruling that denied citizenship to enslaved people and declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional.

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

• Lincoln-Douglas Debates: Debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas on the issue of slavery.

John Brown and Harpers Ferry

• John Brown and Harpers Ferry: Abolitionist John Brown led a raid on a federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia.

Election of 1860

• Election of 1860: Abraham Lincoln's victory led to the secession of Southern states.

Secession

• Secession: Withdrawal of Southern states from the Union.

Hypocrisy of the “Southern Cause”

• Argued for states' rights, but sought to protect slavery.

Fort Sumter and Lincoln’s Decision Making

• Fort Sumter: Attack on Fort Sumter marked the beginning of the Civil War.

Comparison of North and South at the Dawn of the War

• The North had more resources and a larger population, while the South had a stronger military tradition.