CRIME AND PUNISHMENT

CRIME AND PUNISHMENT Study Notes

TWO INITIAL OBSERVATIONS

  • In societies characterized by racial and ethnic hierarchies:

    • Minority groups are consistently perceived as more deviant or criminal.

    • The criminal justice system tends to arrest, convict, and incarcerate minorities at significantly higher rates than other groups.

PERCEPTIONS OF CRIMINALITY

  • Racial and ethnic minority groups are often viewed as:

    • More aggressive, dangerous, or violent.

  • This perception is a manifestation of white privilege, where:

    • The behavior of the dominant ("normal") group is not judged as harshly compared to the behavior of minority groups.

  • Minority groups, particularly Blacks and Hispanics, are:

    • Labeled and stigmatized as criminals.

    • Entire groups judged more harshly due to stereotypes.

  • Immigrants are frequently stigmatized as dangerous criminals, despite research showing:

    • They tend to commit fewer crimes compared to native-born populations.

  • The phenomenon referred to as the "Arabization" of terrorism highlights how:

    • Certain racial/ethnic groups are disproportionately linked with violent crime.

STUDIES OF RACIAL PERCEPTIONS AND CRIME

  • Research methods include experiments such as:

    • Video experiments examining how race influences perceptions of aggression and violence.

    • Findings reveal:

      • White subjects are more likely to view Black behavior as threatening compared to similar behaviors exhibited by White individuals.

    • Other experiments analyzed perceptions regarding race and physical stature:

    • Participants were significantly more likely to perceive young Black men as being taller, heavier, and more muscular than their White peers.

    • This heightened perception leads to:

      • Increased justification and approval of force against young Black men.

RACE/ETHNICITY AND CRIME: STRUCTURAL INEQUALITY

  • Data indicates:

    • Search, arrest, and incarceration rates are disproportionately higher for minority groups.

  • Police practices:

    • Resources are concentrated in areas with higher minority populations, leading to:

    • Structural inequalities reflected through increased policing impact on these communities.

  • Historical context reveals:

    • Overt and intentional discrimination was common.

    • Current practices may appear color-blind but yield disproportionate outcomes prolonging structural inequality in all areas, including wealth and political power.

  • The legal system allows:

    • Felons to be denied jobs, housing, and government benefits, affecting their family life and reintegration into the community.

RACE/ETHNIC INCARCERATION RATES

  • Data Analysis:

    • Over the years, Black imprisonment rates had a decrease but remain significantly higher at:

    • Black individuals being five times as likely to be imprisoned compared to White individuals.

  • Imprisonment statistics per 100,000 U.S. residents indicate:

    • 2010-2018:

    • Black: 1,096

    • Hispanic: 525

    • White: 214

    • These categories are mutually exclusive (i.e., White non-Hispanic, Black non-Hispanic, Hispanic of any race).

  • Source cited: Economic Policy Institute analysis of Bureau of Justice Statistics data from 2019.

“DRIVING WHILE BLACK” AND “STOP AND FRISK”

  • The practice of “Driving While Black” (DWB) statistics show:

    • Minority groups face increased likelihood of being stopped for routine traffic violations.

    • Higher chances of vehicle searches.

    • Substantial numbers of minorities are subject to "stop and frisk" policies.

PHILA. TRAFFIC STOPS & POP. BY RACE

  • Traffic stop demographics in Philadelphia:

    • Black: 76.7% of traffic stops

    • Latino: 8.9%

    • White: 13.3%

  • Population statistics:

    • Black: 38.3%

    • Latino: 14.9%

    • This disparity shows over-policing in minority communities.

  • Source: Philadelphia Police Department, U.S. Census Bureau.

COMPARATIVE TRAFFIC STOP DATA

  • Statistics highlighting comparisons between Black drivers and White drivers:

    • Black drivers are:

    • 31% more likely to be pulled over.

    • 81% more likely to be stopped without being given a reason.

    • 174% more likely to endure vehicle searches.

    • Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.

NEW YORK CITY’S “STOP & FRISK” POLICING

  • Demographics of stop-and-frisk incidents reveal:

    • 60% of stops involve Black individuals.

    • 48% involve Latinos, while only 24% are White individuals.

  • Source: New York Police Department data, as reported by the New York Civil Liberties Union.

STOP-AND-FRISKS AND CRIME RATES

  • Historical analysis of stop-and-frisk effectiveness:

    • Despite stopping and frisking practices decreasing over time, crime rates did not rise.

    • Graphical data (2003-2013) illustrates:

    • A consistent drop in stop-and-frisks alongside stable crime figures.

CRIME AND INCARCERATION IN THE U.S. (1990-2020)

  • A fundamental paradox exists in U.S. criminal justice trends:

    • Crime rates have significantly decreased.

    • Incarceration rates have increased dramatically.

    • Race and ethnicity are central themes in understanding these trends.

POSSIBLE EXPLANATIONS FOR LOWER CRIME RATES

  • Various hypotheses suggested:

    • Increased incarceration leads to fewer potential criminals.

    • However, research indicates:

    • Incarceration levels have only a negligible effect on actual crime rates.

    • Possible influence of influential court cases:

    • Roe v. Wade (1971) raised as a possible contributing factor for significant crime rate decreases.

    • Still, experts agree on the lack of clarity regarding the relation between economic conditions and crime rates.

CRIME RATE GRAPH ANALYSIS (1960-2012)

  • Notable Trends:

    • The crime rate peaked during the 1970s and 1980s.

    • A drop of nearly 45% from 1990 to 2012 was observed in violent and property crimes.

  • Sources: DOJ reports and original calculations.

U.S. VIOLENT CRIME RATE (1970-2013)

  • Data on violent crimes per 100,000 people highlights:

    • Significant peaks observed in the early 1990s, with a notable drop thereafter.

  • Categorization includes:

    • Aggravated assault, robbery, rape, and homicide statistics.

    • Source: FBI data.

INCARCERATION AND EDUCATION

  • Analysis of incarceration rates based on education levels for men aged 20-34:

    • Disparities exist across racial groups, highlighting those without high school diplomas versus those with a diploma.

    • The source is the Pew Charitable Trusts report on economic mobility and incarceration's impact.

MASS INCARCERATION: THE “NEW JIM CROW”? (ALEXANDER 2010)

  • The New Jim Crow arguments describe:

    • Part 1: Political Backlash

    • Response to civil rights and anti-war movements.

    • Use of racial politics to secure white voter support.

    • Part 2: War on Drugs

    • Embedding the war on drugs further racialized crime amid the crack epidemic.

    • Part 3: Mass Incarceration

    • Emergence of mass incarceration as a new racial control mechanism leading to aggravated structural inequalities.

CRITIQUE OF “THE NEW JIM CROW” ARGUMENT

  • While mass incarceration primarily impacts Black communities:

    • Critiques indicate inaccuracies:

    • The war on drugs was not the sole factor underlying mass incarceration trends.

    • Most inmates are in state prisons for violent crimes, not drug-related offenses.

U.S. INCARCERATION STATS AND TYPES OF OFFENSES

  • Detailed statistics reveal:

    • Total U.S. incarceration exceeding 2.3 million, comprising various categories.

    • Breakdown includes drug, property, and violent offenses with state versus federal distinctions.

TWO FINAL ISSUES

  • White-collar crime:

    • Prosecutions for white-collar crime have reached a 20-year low.

    • For instance, no prison sentences enforced post-2008 financial crisis exemplifies systemic oversight.

  • Response to opioid versus crack epidemic:

    • Differing social perceptions: opioid crises framed as public health issues results in more compassion, contrastingly crack epidemics resulted in punitive measures reflecting racial biases.