The Road to Revolution: Colonial Administration and the French and Indian War

English Colonial Administration and the Rise of Self-Government

  • Salutary Neglect and Its Impact:
    • During the period of salutary neglect, Americans became accustomed to self-government.
    • This habit quickly became an ingrained right for the colonists.
    • It fostered a belief that they were primarily responsible to the king or queen, not the British Parliament.
    • Colonists felt Parliament lacked the right to manage their affairs because they did not elect its members; they elected members of their colonial assemblies.
  • Structure of Colonial Administration (by the 1700s1700s):
    • All English colonies had transitioned to Royal Colonies by this time, directly responsible to England.
    • No more proprietorships or private owners.
    • Each colony had a governor appointed by the Crown.
    • Each governor had a council of advisers and judges.
    • Each colony also had an elected assembly (with various names, e.g., Virginia General Assembly).
    • Conflict Point: These elected assemblies levied taxes on the people to pay the salaries of the governor and the council, creating a power dynamic where the Crown's representative (the governor) depended on the colonists' elected body for financial support.

Prelude to Conflict: The Ohio River Valley (1754)

  • Depletion of Tobacco Lands:
    • By 17541754, tobacco lands in Virginia, northern North Carolina, and Maryland were becoming depleted of minerals and nutrients.
    • The soil was less productive, and new, fertile tobacco land was scarce.
  • Western Expansion and the Ohio Company:
    • Wealthy Virginians began to push westward, as Virginia claimed vast western territories.
    • A group of rich Virginians formed the Ohio Company to settle the Ohio River Valley.
    • The goal was to relocate Virginia's tobacco planting operations to new, fertile lands.
  • French Claims and Presence:
    • France also claimed the Ohio River Valley as part of New France.
    • French colonization was concentrated along the Saint Lawrence River Valley (Quebec, Montreal), extending through the Great Lakes and down the Mississippi River (explored by LaSalle).
    • Key Difference in Colonial Models:
      • French: Primarily single men involved in fur trade, establishing good relationships with native peoples, and generally not displacing them.
      • English: Large families and communities, focused on agricultural settlement, often displacing native populations.
  • Fort Duquesne:
    • In 17541754, the French sent troops and built Fort Duquesne (present-day Pittsburgh, at the confluence of the Ohio, Monongahela, and Allegheny Rivers) to assert their claim against Virginia's westward expansion.
  • George Washington's Initial Expedition:
    • Virginia responded by sending a militia led by 2222-year-old George Washington, a surveyor and son of an Ohio Company investor.
    • Washington's mission was to inform the French they had to leave the territory.
    • Ambush at Great Meadows (May 17541754): Near Fort Duquesne, Washington's militia was ambushed by French soldiers and their Native American allies.
    • Fort Necessity: Washington and his troops retreated and hastily built a stockade called Fort Necessity.
    • Surrender: The French and their allies soon overran Fort Necessity, forcing Washington to surrender and return home.

The French and Indian War (Seven Years' War: 17541754-17631763)

  • Beginning of a Definitive War:
    • Washington's defeat marked the beginning of a major conflict.
    • Known as the French and Indian War in the Americas.
    • Known as the Seven Years' War in Europe.
    • Unique because it was the only colonial war of this period that started in the Americas.
  • British Intervention and Braddock's Defeat (1755):
    • The British government, unwilling to tolerate French claims, sent large numbers of regular British troops to the colonies for the first time.
    • General Edward Braddock led an expedition of English regulars and colonial militia to clear the French from the Ohio River Valley.
    • Braddock's forces were ambushed near Fort Duquesne by French soldiers and Native American allies, resulting in heavy losses, and Braddock himself was killed.
    • This loss marked the beginning of widespread warfare across the colonies, predominantly in the north.
  • Capture of Acadia/Nova Scotia (1755):
    • One early British victory was the capture of Acadia (renamed Nova Scotia) from the French.
    • The French inhabitants of Acadia were forcibly expelled by the British.
    • Many of these Acadians migrated to Louisiana, becoming the ancestors of the Cajuns (a shortened version of Acadians).
  • Global Conflict:
    • The war was one of the first true global wars.
    • Britain and France fought not only in North America but also in South Asia (over Indian settlements), North Africa (Spain allied with France), and the West Indies (over Sugar Islands).
    • Initially, the war did not go well for Great Britain.
  • Turning Point: William Pitt (1758):
    • The tide of the war turned in 17581758 when William Pitt became Prime Minister of England.
    • Pitt considered the war critical and committed ungodly amounts of money and all of England's resources to defeat France.
    • His determination and vast expenditure turned the war in Britain's favor.
  • Key British Victories (1758-1759):
    • Recapture of Louisbourg (1758): This fort controlled access to the Saint Lawrence River and thus to New France. It had been captured before but returned; this time, it was held.
    • Battle of Quebec (1759):
      • This was the main prize and effectively ended the war in North America.
      • The British, led by General Jeffrey Amherst (naval force) and General James Wolfe (army), launched an all-out assault on Quebec, the capital of New France.
      • Quebec was considered impregnable, situated on cliffs above the river with formidable defenses.
      • Rogers' Rangers, a colonial militia led by Captain William Rogers, performed a remarkable feat by scaling the cliffs under darkness with ropes and grapples.
      • They positioned themselves on the Plains of Abraham behind the city, surprising the French army led by General Montcalm.
      • A decisive two-day battle ensued on the Plains of Abraham.
      • Both General Wolfe and General Montcalm were killed in the battle.
      • The French surrendered Quebec, ending their effective control over New France.
  • Annus Mirabilis (17591759): The Miraculous Year:
    • The English referred to 17591759 as the