American Govt
ch 1
Learning Objectives
European exploration of the Americas began in 1492 with Columbus, who was supported by Spain and mistakenly identified Indigenous peoples as "Indians."
Early explorers from Spain, England, and France sought wealth and resources, not permanent settlements, and their monarchies aimed to claim land and riches.
Spain, France, and England benefited economically from gold, furs, and agricultural products, intensifying competition for territory.
Pope Alexander VI issued a proclamation in 1493 dividing the Western Hemisphere between Spain (west) and Portugal (east), influencing colonial claims.
Spain established settlements in Florida, the Southwest, and lands later part of the Louisiana Purchase, while France, Holland, and Great Britain expanded exploration in North America by the mid-1500s.
French fur trappers built relationships with Indigenous tribes for trade, contrasting with the Spanish, who enslaved and brutalized Indigenous Americans.
France, Holland, and Great Britain eventually sought to acquire land previously claimed by Spain, recognizing the New World's potential.
The development of the American political system was shaped by interactions among European explorers, Indigenous Americans, colonists, and later constitutional framers, with government serving as the formal mechanism for policy-making and state affairs.
What Are the Roots of American Government?
The origins of American government are rooted in the experiences of the earliest inhabitants of the Americas and their interactions with European colonists.
Initial and ongoing exchanges between Native peoples and European settlers shaped the development of American society and governance.
American identity and government have continually evolved, with each generation building upon the experiences and lessons of the past to shape the nation's future.
The Earliest Inhabitants of the Americas
Indigenous peoples inhabited North America for over 30,000 years before European colonization, with migration likely occurring from present-day Russia via the Bering Strait, though some debate exists about alternate migration routes, including by boat from the Pacific and from the Southern Hemisphere.
Indigenous cultures were highly diverse, with significant variation in customs, languages, values, and political systems; for example, the Iroquois Confederacy united five northeastern tribes in a cooperative government structure, influencing later colonial governance models like the Articles of Confederation.
Population estimates of Indigenous peoples before European contact range from 50 million to over 100 million, but these numbers declined rapidly due to diseases introduced by colonists, warfare with settlers and among tribes, and displacement caused by European expansion.
Tribal distribution was widespread across regions, including the Pacific West (Chinook, Yakima, Nez Perce, Pomo, Chumash), Mountain West (Crow, Cheyenne, Shoshone, Arapaho, Paiute, Ute, Navajo, Pueblo, Apache), Midwest (Sioux, Pawnee, Miami, Shawnee), Alaska (Inuit, Aleut, Tingit), Southern (Comanche, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Natchez, Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Powhatan), and Northeast (Abenaki, Massachuset, Iroquois, Pequot, Lenape).
The First Colonists
Colonists came to North America for diverse reasons, primarily seeking economic opportunities and wealth. Many settlers were motivated by commerce, with both wealthy individuals and laborers hoping to improve their fortunes.
The first permanent English settlement was Jamestown, Virginia, established in 1607 by a joint stock company. Jamestown marked the beginning of English colonization focused on profit, and in 1619, it saw the arrival of the first enslaved people and women.
Dutch colonization began in 1609 with settlements along the Hudson and lower Delaware Rivers, forming New Netherlands. The Dutch purchased Manhattan Island in 1626 and established trading posts such as Fort Orange (Albany) and New Amsterdam (Manhattan), which were populated mainly by company employees.
New Amsterdam attracted a diverse group of settlers, including people from Holland, Finland, Germany, Sweden, and free Black sailors from the British Isles. This mix of ethnicities and races contributed to a culture of inclusiveness that characterizes New York City today.
Before 1700, colonial settlements were distributed among three main powers: the English in the Northeast and Chesapeake Bay (including Portsmouth, Plymouth, Boston, Providence, Hartford, and Jamestown), the Dutch in New York and the surrounding region, and the Swedish in Wilmington and its northern and southern areas.
A Religious Tradition Takes Root
Puritans, also known as Pilgrims, arrived in Massachusetts in 1620 seeking religious freedom and established a community based on strict religious authority and individualism, distinct from the commercial motives of other colonies.
The Mayflower Compact, signed by male passengers, established a self-governing agreement to create and follow laws in accordance with Christian faith, serving as an early model of democratic governance.
Puritan religious dominance was challenged by figures like Roger Williams, who advocated for separation from the Church of England and religious tolerance, leading to the founding of Providence Plantations (Rhode Island) as a haven for dissenters.
Anne Hutchinson further challenged Puritan authority by promoting religious tolerance and women’s rights, resulting in her banishment and the establishment of Portsmouth, Rhode Island, as a center for religious freedom.
Thomas Hooker opposed Puritan restrictions on voting rights, advocating for broader suffrage among White Christian men, and helped found Connecticut, which developed a representative government and a constitution with a bill of rights.
Other colonies, such as Maryland (Catholic) and Pennsylvania (Quaker), were established with religious tolerance as a core principle, attracting diverse groups like German Mennonites, Lutherans, and French Huguenots, which contributed to their survival and growth.
What Are the Functions of the American Government?
Colonial governments in America were influenced by English law and operated as either royal or proprietary colonies, with royal colonies directly benefiting the king and proprietary colonies run for profit by corporations and the king.
Most colonies had three branches of government: a governor (appointed by the king or owners), a council (advisers, often the highest court, appointed by the governor), and an assembly (elected by property-owning White men, responsible for lawmaking and controlling taxation).
Governors held significant power, including vetoing assembly acts, commanding militias, and appointing judicial and law enforcement officials.
Assemblies' key power was control over taxation ("power of the purse"), leading to ongoing conflict with the king and contributing to the Revolutionary War.
Colonial judicial systems included justices of the peace (handling minor cases), county courts (civil and criminal matters), and a highest court formed by the governor and council.
Local governments existed within colonies, such as plantations and townships, where men met to discuss issues, levy taxes, pass laws, and elect local officials.
Many colonial governments included a bill of rights, listing liberties and rights that government could not infringe upon, establishing shared principles about government functions.
Colonists were diverse and motivated by religious freedom and economic opportunity, making it difficult to create a government that served all interests after independence.
Initially, the colonies formed a confederate government under the Articles of Confederation, but this system proved ineffective, leading to the creation of a new constitution.
The new political system placed the people at the center of power, but many preferred the term "republic" over "democracy," associating it with representation by educated or wealthy citizens.
The U.S. Constitution established key government goals: to establish justice, ensure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure liberty for all citizens—principles that remain central and challenging for government today.
Establishing Justice
The rule of law is fundamental for any government, providing a common set of principles and enabling justice to be administered by recognized legal authorities.
The U.S. Constitution empowers Congress to establish a federal judicial system to ensure justice is dispensed fairly.
The Bill of Rights includes key protections for justice, such as the right to a trial by jury, the right to be informed of criminal charges, and the right to an impartial judge and jury.
Justice has been a central theme in American history, with recent examples including nationwide protests in 2020 demanding justice for Black Americans and prompting legislative action to address systemic inequalities in the legal system.
Ensuring Domestic Tranquility
The Enlightenment emphasized the connection between liberty and domestic tranquility, advocating for tolerance of individual differences and criticizing absolute monarchy and religious or political abuses as threats to a peaceful society.
Governments are structured to maintain safety and order, with local police, state national guards, and federal armed services or militias available to address threats both from within and outside the country.
Extraordinary government measures may be justified during crises to contain violence or threats, even by those who value Enlightenment principles.
Recent years have seen significant protest activity in the United States, with most protests being peaceful but some involving violence, reflecting ongoing debates about the sources and nature of threats to domestic tranquility.
Political perspectives differ on what constitutes the main threats to order: conservatives often highlight urban protests and disorder, while liberals focus on events like the January 6 Capitol riot and politically motivated violence.
There is broad agreement that maintaining domestic tranquility is a major challenge for the United States today, despite differing views on the sources of unrest.
Providing for the Common Defense
Governments have historically prioritized the safety and defense of citizens against foreign threats, with early U.S. government focusing on protection from invasions and piracy.
The U.S. Constitution assigns defense responsibilities to both the president and Congress, making the president commander in chief and granting Congress the power to raise an army.
Defense spending is a significant and debated part of the federal budget, with ongoing discussions about the extent of U.S. military involvement globally.
Recent U.S. military and foreign policy actions include the withdrawal from Afghanistan (2021), leading NATO opposition to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine (2022), and supporting Israel after Hamas attacks (2023), while also criticizing Israeli tactics causing civilian casualties.
U.S. officials consider regions like Afghanistan, Ukraine, and Israel as critical to national defense goals, despite their geographic distance from the U.S.
Public opinion on these issues is expressed through voting, activism, and protest, reflecting diverse perspectives on U.S. foreign policy.
A shift toward an “America First” approach under Donald Trump’s presidency is expected to alter U.S. engagement in overseas conflicts.
Promoting the General Welfare
The role of government in improving people's lives has expanded significantly over time, evolving from a general ideal of "promoting the general Welfare" to encompassing programs like Social Security, Medicare, interstate highways, and public school funding.
Debate persists over the proper scope of government in the United States, with ongoing disagreements between those who support expanding government programs (liberals) and those who favor limiting government spending and regulation (conservatives).
The COVID-19 pandemic initially led to bipartisan support for large-scale government aid, but as the crisis continued, traditional partisan divisions reemerged regarding federal spending and regulation.
Recent political outcomes, such as the 2024 elections, reflect public support for reduced federal spending and less regulation, as evidenced by Republican electoral success based on these promises.
Securing the Blessings of Liberty
Liberty refers to the ability of individuals to act as they wish, provided their actions do not harm others.
Liberty often creates conflicts both among individuals and between individuals and government, especially when personal freedoms intersect or clash.
Citizens generally have the right to criticize the government and petition for changes, which is a key aspect of securing liberty.
Boundaries on liberty are necessary when one person's actions infringe upon the rights or well-being of others.
Public health crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, highlight tensions between individual liberty and collective safety, as seen in debates over mask mandates, business closures, and vaccine requirements.
Opponents of government mandates argue for personal choice and bodily autonomy, while proponents emphasize the need to limit individual liberty to protect public health.
How Have the American People and Their Culture Changed over Time?
America’s population and size are key factors shaping government functions and policy preferences, with changes in these areas influencing political ideology.
Racial and ethnic composition is increasingly diverse, contributing to divisions and impacting how individuals align with policies and political beliefs.
Population trends, including family structure, family size, and aging demographics, affect societal needs and government priorities.
Religion and regional growth play significant roles in shaping cultural divisions and influencing political attitudes and policy choices.
These factors are interrelated and collectively contribute to a more divided American culture, affecting how government functions and responds to public needs.
Size and Population Trends
The size and population of the United States have expanded dramatically since its founding, growing from fewer than 4 million people in 13 states to over 336 million in 2024, with representation in the House of Representatives increasing from 65 to 435 members.
Early U.S. society was homogenous and exclusive, with most people sharing a single language and Protestant-Christian heritage, and voting rights limited to White male property owners.
Slavery and the marginalization of minorities were foundational aspects of early U.S. history; enslaved people had no rights until the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865, and Indigenous peoples were displaced and denied citizenship and voting rights until 1924.
Immigration patterns have shifted over time, with large waves of European immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, who often faced discrimination but had more opportunities than non-European immigrants.
Asian immigrants, particularly from China, were largely excluded from entry and citizenship during much of U.S. history.
The percentage of immigrants in the U.S. population has fluctuated, peaking at 14.8% in 1890, dropping to 4.7% in 1970, and rising again to 13.8% by 2022, with a notable increase following the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965.
Racial and Ethnic Composition
The racial and ethnic makeup of the U.S. has continually evolved due to waves of immigration from diverse regions, including Western Europeans in the 1600s–1700s, enslaved Africans, Chinese laborers post-1848, Irish Catholics in the 1850s, northern and eastern Europeans in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and more recent arrivals from South/Southeast Asia, Cuba, Mexico, and Central/South America.
Currently, nearly 14% of Americans are legal immigrants, with over 45 million U.S. residents born abroad—the highest absolute number globally, though the percentage is still below the 1890 peak of 14.8% and lower than countries like Canada (17.6%).
Immigration has significantly shifted the racial and ethnic balance in the U.S., with Latine/a/o people now the second largest group after white Americans, surpassing Black Americans, and Asian Americans being the fastest-growing group.
By 2019, the majority of Americans under age sixteen were Black, Latine/a/o, Asian American, or Indigenous American, indicating a major demographic shift that is already reflected in states like California, Hawai'i, Maryland, Nevada, New Mexico, and Texas, where people of color are the majority.
Projections suggest that people of color will become the majority in the U.S. within a generation, fundamentally changing the nation’s demographic landscape.
Immigration remains a central and contentious issue in U.S. politics, with recent presidential campaigns (notably those of Donald J. Trump and Joseph R. Biden) focusing on border security, deportation policies, and responses to surges in migration, reflecting ongoing debates about national identity and policy.
Issues of an Aging Population
The age structure of the U.S. population is shifting, with a significant increase in the proportion of older adults. This change is due to lower fertility rates, increased life expectancy (from about 35 years at the nation's founding to 77.5 years today), and immigration patterns.
The COVID-19 pandemic exposed the heightened vulnerability of older Americans, as those over 65 experienced the highest rates of hospitalization and death.
An aging population impacts society and government programs, creating financial pressures on working-age Americans due to increased demand for government-funded benefits like Medicare and Social Security, while the proportion of working-age individuals is declining.
Potential generational conflict may arise, as older adults may be less likely to adopt new technologies or start businesses, and political divisions can occur over government spending priorities—older voters often oppose increased education funding, while younger voters may not support senior-focused programs.
These demographic changes could lead to policy debates and possible reductions in benefits for seniors or higher taxes for younger workers, reflecting the competing interests of different age groups.
The Role of Religious Beliefs
Early American settlers predominantly identified with Christian sects, and their religious beliefs influenced the development of American social and political systems.
Indigenous American belief systems were often viewed negatively by settlers, who considered them "savage and unholy" due to their polytheistic nature.
Non-Christian faiths such as Judaism and Islam were present but in much smaller numbers; early Jewish colonists and enslaved Muslims from Africa are documented, but Christianity remained dominant.
Over time, religious diversity in the U.S. has increased, with Jewish, Buddhist, Hindu, and Muslim communities establishing strong roots and influencing political and social demands, such as advocacy related to Middle Eastern policies.
Religious traditions shape perspectives on social issues, including abortion and same-sex marriage, with different groups holding varying views.
Protestants remain the largest single religious group, though their numerical dominance has declined; Protestantism itself is diverse, ranging from conservative evangelicals to liberal mainline denominations.
Roman Catholicism is the largest single denomination, but Catholics hold a wide range of opinions, not always aligned with official church doctrine.
No other religious tradition exceeds two percent of the population, highlighting the continued predominance of Christianity.
A significant rise in individuals identifying as atheist, agnostic, or "nothing in particular" has occurred, now comprising about 26% of the U.S. population and forming the second largest religious grouping if considered together.
Despite increasing secularism, most politicians and elected officials still publicly identify with a religion, and nearly all are sworn in using a holy book, though this is a tradition rather than a legal requirement.
Family and Family Size
Family size in the United States has decreased over time due to industrialization and increased knowledge of birth control, shifting from large families needed for labor to smaller families with fewer children.
Societal views on the ideal family size have changed, with most Americans now preferring no children or two children at most, compared to the 1940s when four or more children was considered ideal.
Household composition has diversified, with a significant rise in single-parent households (27% of children under eighteen live with one parent, mostly their mother) and single-person households (28%), influenced by an aging population and declining marriage rates.
Marriage patterns have evolved, including increased interracial marriages following the 1967 Loving v. Virginia Supreme Court decision and the legalization of same-sex marriage nationwide after Obergefell v. Hodges in 2015.
Demographic trends show declining teenage birth rates and increased childbirth among women over forty, reflecting changing norms around motherhood and family planning.
Changes in family structure and marriage impact public policy demands, such as greater support for government-subsidized childcare and after-school programs, especially among single-parent families.
Regional Growth and Expansion
Regional sectionalism in the United States began with the English colonies, where the South focused on commerce and the North was shaped by religious freedom and puritanical values, leading to distinct cultural development.
Immigration contributed to regional diversity, as groups like Scandinavians settled in Minnesota and Irish, Italian, and Jewish immigrants concentrated in Northeastern urban centers, bringing unique perspectives and influencing local government demands and political views.
Generational transmission of political attitudes has reinforced regional differences, with these variations continuing to shape public opinion and political behavior today.
The North-South divide is a persistent and dramatic regional difference, rooted in historical events such as the Constitutional Convention (where Southerners favored a weaker national government) and the Civil War (fought over slavery and governmental philosophy). The South continues to support states’ rights, smaller national government, and maintains symbols of the Confederacy, while lagging in support for civil rights.
The West is distinctive for its history and population contrasts, originally settled by those seeking land and gold, and now home to both anti-government individuals and those seeking government intervention for environmental issues.
Rural versus urban attitudes differ significantly, with rural areas tending to be more conservative and urban centers more liberal. This is evident in voting patterns, where Democratic candidates dominate large cities and Republican candidates prevail in rural regions.
Patterns of Polarization
Political polarization has become a defining feature of contemporary American politics, with increasing ideological distance and less compromise between the two major parties.
From the 1940s to the early 1980s, there was a broad consensus on the federal government's active role in the economy, protection of rights, and confronting the Soviet Union, with the Democratic Party as the dominant force.
The "Reagan Revolution" in the 1980s and the rise of confrontational Republicans in Congress after 1994 ended this consensus, emphasizing reduced government spending, deregulation, strong defense, and traditional values.
Cooperation and cross-party compromise have sharply declined, with conservative Democrats and liberal Republicans becoming rare.
Polarization, which began among political elites, has spread to the general public, leading to "mass polarization" where conservatives align with the GOP and liberals with the Democratic Party.
Americans are increasingly geographically sorted by political beliefs, living and working among like-minded individuals, which reinforces polarization.
Social media amplifies divisions and intensifies the echo chamber effect, further shrinking the moderate middle ground.
There is growing concern that intense political rhetoric may lead to real-world confrontations and violence.
Despite these trends, there remain enduring sources of national unity, legitimacy, and shared values within the country.
Political Reform and Realities: How Do Americans View Their Government?
Americans’ attitudes toward government have evolved alongside demographic and societal changes, influencing the political process and policy decisions.
Politics involves competition over resources and policy outcomes, resulting in shifting winners and losers; changes in political leadership and ideology can alter who benefits at any given time.
Shared values, such as the pursuit of the American Dream, continue to unite citizens, though the definition and attainability of the Dream have shifted over time to include elements like wealth, home ownership, education, and upward mobility.
Belief in the American Dream has declined, with only 43% of adults believing it is achievable, and significant differences in perception based on political affiliation (63% of Republicans vs. 35% of Democrats) and age (over half of those 65+ vs. less than one-third under 30).
Trust in major American institutions is currently low, which further shapes public attitudes toward government and politics.
The Role of Government
Early U.S. history featured a limited federal government, mainly responsible for national defense, currency, and collecting taxes, while state governments held more power over daily life.
As the nation and economy expanded, the federal government assumed greater roles, including business regulation, poverty relief, and food inspection, leading to increased public reliance on government programs (e.g., tax deductions, energy subsidies, internet grants).
Americans often express a preference for small government in principle, but many support specific government programs that benefit them directly, revealing a tension between ideology and practical needs.
Debates over policies like the Affordable Care Act highlight conflicting attitudes—while some oppose government intervention, many support provisions such as coverage for young adults and preexisting conditions, especially during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic.
Public trust in government and institutions is low, with many Americans blaming government for problems but not always recognizing its contributions to their quality of life.
Partisanship and political division are at high levels, contributing to declining trust not only in institutions but also among citizens themselves.
Understanding government operations and policies is crucial for informed participation, enabling you to critically evaluate laws, reforms, and the impact of government on your life.
Active engagement and critical thinking are encouraged, so you can make informed decisions about political issues, participate in the democratic process, and assess the effectiveness and limitations of government actions.
Conclusion and Review
American government has origins in both early European colonist cultures and interactions with Indigenous populations.
Initial colonists arrived seeking wealth, while later groups like the Pilgrims came for religious freedom.
Colonial governments varied significantly in their structure, purpose, and operation.
Over time, the colonies increasingly desired independence from British rule.
What Are the Functions of the American Government?
The main functions of American government are establishing justice, ensuring domestic tranquility, providing for the common defense, promoting the general welfare, and securing the blessings of liberty.
These functions are explicitly outlined in the Preamble to the Constitution.
In the 2024 elections, Republican success was linked to campaign promises focused on reducing federal spending and decreasing regulation of business and industry.
How Have the American People and Their Culture Changed over Time?
The American electorate is continually evolving due to changes in several key characteristics.
Size and population growth impact political representation and resource allocation.
Racial and ethnic composition is shifting, leading to increased diversity and influencing policy priorities and voting patterns.
Population trends, such as urbanization and migration, affect where and how people vote.
Age demographics change over time, with implications for issues like social security, education, and healthcare.
Religion continues to play a significant role in shaping values, political attitudes, and party affiliations.
Regional growth and shifts influence political power and the distribution of congressional seats.
Political Reform and Realities: How Do Americans View Their Government?
Americans’ attitudes toward government have changed over time, often influenced by shifts in population and demographic changes, which have led to controversy and debate within the electorate.
Many Americans hold high and sometimes unrealistic expectations of what government should provide, while often underestimating the actual scope and impact of government actions and services in their daily lives.
Decreasing trust in government institutions is a significant factor in public dissatisfaction, with skepticism about the effectiveness and integrity of these institutions contributing to negative perceptions among the electorate.