Perestroika, the Collapse of the Soviet Union, and Transformation in Eastern Europe (1985–2000)

Analytical Framework and the Stability of the Soviet Union

• The lecture centers on the questions raised in Alexei Yurchak’s book, Everything Was Forever, Until It Was No More: The Last Soviet Generation.
• Primary Research Questions:
  • On what did the stability of the Soviet Union rest?
  • How did the regime legitimate itself to the population?
  • How did the regime gain its persuasive power?
  • How did political communication function within the context of an authoritarian regime?
  • What characterized the ‘normal’ life of ‘ordinary Soviet citizens’ within this system?
  • What are the foundations of the nostalgic narratives concerning Soviet life?
• Analytical Contrast: The post-Soviet retrospective view often stands in opposition to Western clichés. These clichés typically characterize Soviet life through:
  • Ubiquitous propaganda and boring media.
  • Passive and uncritical media consumers.
  • A "gray" everyday life.
  • A chronic economy of scarcity (Mangelwirtschaft).
• Public Opinion Trends (1996–2021): Survey data tracking the question "Which political system appears best to you?" shows a recurring preference for the Soviet system over the current system or Western-style democracy among certain demographics.

Geopolitical Situation at Gorbachev's Accession (March 1985)

• End of the Breųnev Era: The late Breųnev period was overshadowed by the Afghanistan War (beginning December 1979) and domestic stagnation.
• Cold War Intensification: Following the 1981 inauguration of Ronald Reagan and the introduction of the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI), the Cold War entered a phase of hardening and confrontation.
• Symbolic Politics: Significant diplomatic gestures of hostility included the reciprocal Olympic boycotts: Moscow in 1980 and Los Angeles in 1984.
• The "Star Wars" Era: Instead of further disarmament, the period was marked by rearmament and the rhetoric of a "Space War."
• Religious and Moral Rhetoric: Reagan’s labeling of the USSR as the ‘Evil Empire’ signaled an end to the era of D tente.

The Soviet-Afghan War: Origins and Escalation

• Internal Afghan Conflict: The communist People's Democratic Party was struggling for power and requested Soviet military assistance.
• Initial Hesitation: The Politburo of the CPSU (KPdSU) initially hesitated to intervene militarily, despite requests from Afghan communist leader Nur Mohammed Taraki, due to the confusing internal power struggles.
• The Turning Point: The assassination of Nur Mohammed Taraki, the General Secretary of the CC of the People's Democratic Party and Prime Minister, changed the Kremlin's calculus. Concerns grew that a radical religious and pro-USA regime might establish itself on the southern border of the USSR.
• Intelligence Reports (October 1979): Soviet information suggested that around the time of Taraki's murder, approximately $600$ people, including pro-Soviet supporters, were executed in Afghanistan.
• Suspicion of Hafizullah Amin: Taraki's successor, Hafizullah Amin, was viewed with deep mistrust by the Kremlin. Moscow suspected he might turn towards the USA (unofficially, he had indeed approached them).
• Broader Irritations in the Politburo:
  • Movements of the US Navy in the Persian Gulf.
  • Reports of a potential US invasion of Iran.
  • Decisive NATO move to station American medium-range missiles in Europe, known on the day the invasion decision was made in Moscow.
• Tensions with China: Under Deng Xiaoping, Sino-Soviet relations deteriorated, leading to armed border conflicts in May 1978 and the conflict between China and Vietnam. The 1979 resumption of diplomatic relations between the USA and China fueled Soviet fears of losing global influence.
• The Invasion and Diplomatic Fallout:
  • The USSR committed a major strategic error by murdering Prime Minister Amin immediately after invading.
  • This led to a massive loss of trust among countries in the Global South.
  • The military situation remained unstable until February 1989.
  • Under Perestroika, the war became a matter of intense public debate following media liberalization; the new Congress of People’s Deputies (established Dec 1, 1988) even formed a commission of inquiry.
  • The Stinger Threat: US-supplied Stinger missiles used by the Mujahideen broke Soviet air superiority; reports indicated they could shoot down a helicopter nearly every day.

The Transition of Power (1982–1985)

• Succession Timeline:
  • Leonid I. Breųnev died on November 10, 1982.
  • Michail A. Suslov (1902–1982), the ‘grey eminence’ and head of the Ideology Department from 1947–1982, had died earlier in January 1982.
  • Jurij V. Andropov (June 15, 1914 – February 9, 1984): Formally the KGB chief, he succeeded Suslov in ideology and then Breųnev as General Secretary. Despite being the oldest to take office at $68$ and suffering from heart issues, he was an active reformer.
• Andropov’s Discipline Campaign:
  • He attacked corruption and mismanagement.
  • Example: The Director of Gastronom Nr. 1 (Eliseevskij) and his wife were arrested for abuse of office; the director was sentenced to death and shot in 1984.
  • This period saw a wave of arrests among managers in various enterprises.
• The Rise of Gorbachev:
  • Andropov facilitated an elite exchange, bringing Perestroika-era figures into the Central Committee (ZK).
  • Michail S. Gorbaĉev became Andropov's liaison to the Politburo during the latter's hospitalization in late 1983.
  • Konstantin U. Ćernenko (September 24, 1911 – March 10, 1985): Following Andropov's death, the Politburo chose the aging Ćernenko because Gorbachev (born in 1931) was deemed too young. Ćernenko was too ill to lead by late 1984, leaving Gorbachev to chair sessions frequently.

Perestroika: Economic Reform and the XXVII Party Congress

• Initial Focus: Early reforms focused on ‘Acceleration of economic and social progress’ (Beschleunigung).
• Social Campaigns: Continued Andropov’s fight against corruption and discipline issues. A major campaign against drunkenness and alcoholism was launched.
  • Failure: The anti-alcohol campaign was highly unpopular. Citizens turned to home-brewing (Samogon), and the state budget suffered as vodka sales revenue plummeted, forcing the campaign to stop.
• XXVII Party Congress (Feb 25 – March 6, 1986):
  • Marked by open criticism of the Breųnev era. Gorbachev highlighted law violations, window-dressing, corruption, and the suppression of criticism.
  • The goal was a democratic socialism that utilized the ‘creativity of the people.’
  • Elite Exchange: Continued in the ZK and ministries (e.g., Eduard Ševardnadze as Foreign Minister).
• Economic Strategy:
  • A mixture of 1920s New Economic Policy (NEP) market liberalization and 1960s Kosygin reforms.
  • Aimed for cost-covering, profit-oriented production.
  • Quality Control: On January 1, 1987, a state commission (Gospriemka) was established to ensure production improvements matched wage increases.
  • Industrial Autonomy: From January 1, 1988, workforces could elect their own management. This led to workers voting themselves higher wages, forcing directors to deplete company capital to pay them.
  • Joint Ventures: The state promoted joint ventures with Western firms starting in 1987 to import technical know-how.
• The Crisis of Scarcity:
  • The gap between purchasing power and the supply of goods widened. The list of ‘deficit products’ grew, as did queues.
  • Inflation was fueled by the loss of alcohol revenue and distrust in the Ruble.
  • By 1988, rationing was introduced in $8$ out of $15$ republics. In Moscow and Leningrad (1987–1988), shelves for fruit/vegetables were empty because managers went on strike due to alcohol prohibitions.

Glasnost: Transparency and Public Opinion

• Definition: Glasnost’ means transparency or openness. It was meant to allow the naming of errors so they could be corrected, following the tradition of ‘criticism and self-criticism,’ without questioning the party's primacy.
• The Chernobyl Disaster (April 1986): A pivotal moment where the old strategy of cover-up initially persisted. Glasnost later revealed the authorities' indifference and inhumane treatment of victims.
• Systemic Unintended Consequences: Gorbachev incorrectly assumed that free criticism could be controlled. Instead, it shocked the population and angered conservatives.
• Central Glasnost Themes:
  • Environmental destruction (e.g., the desiccation of the Aral Sea).
  • The privileges of the Nomenklatura.
  • The reality behind the myth of ‘Friendship of Peoples’ (V lkerfreundschaft).

The Nationalities Question and the Collapse of the Union

• Underestimation: Gorbachev severely underestimated the explosive potential of national ethnic identities.
• Kazakhstan (1986): Gorbachev provoked riots by replacing the local Kazakh leader Dinmuchamed Kunaev (1912–1993) with a Russian official.
• Historical Grievances: Under Glasnost, Chechens and Balts began discussing Stalin-era deportations in their local press. Long-smoldering territorial conflicts resurfaced.
• Conflict Zones:
  • Nagorno-Karabakh (1988): A conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan involving pogroms and ethnic cleansing. Moscow’s military intervention was hesitant and ineffective, leading to war.
  • Georgia and Central Asia: Ethnic tensions descended into civil wars.
  • The Baltics (1988–1989): Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania demanded autonomy and an end to Russian immigration. In late 1989, after Gorbachev admitted the existence of the Hitler-Stalin Pact, the Baltic republics declared independence.
• The End of the Union: On June 12, 1990, Boris E’lcin (1931–2007) announced Russia’s sovereignty, followed shortly by Ukraine.

The "White Spots" of History and the Second World War

• Historical Revisionism: Glasnost allowed for the discussion of Stalin's crimes, military failures in WWII, and the true death toll of the Siege of Leningrad.
• The Function of the War Myth: The victory in WWII was the primary integrative force of Soviet society. Questioning this myth threatened the very legitimacy of the system.
• Leningrad Blockade Example:
  • Survivors began sharing non-heroic accounts. A specific example is an 1987 letter in Leningradskaja Pravda from a retired major titled "I have done nothing heroic."
  • This challenged the Moscow-prescribed hero myth and introduced criticism of how authorities handled the famine.
• The Generational Contract: Younger generations were framed as being eternally indebted to the war veterans. This mechanism ensured system loyalty through a silent social contract.
• Putin’s Continuity: Vladimir Putin has adapted this strategy, staging himself with veterans (e.g., the 2013 Stalingrad meeting or the 2020 75th Anniversary Victory Parade) to maintain modern state legitimacy.