AP Psychology- Unit 4 Vocab
Personality Psychology: The study of individual differences in behavior patterns, thoughts, and emotions. For example, someone with an extroverted personality may enjoy socializing and being the center of attention.
Social Psychology: The study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social situations. For instance, social psychologists may study how people conform to group norms.
Person Perception: The process of forming impressions of others. An example would be forming an opinion about someone based on their body language.
Attribution Theory: The theory that explains how individuals interpret and explain the causes of behavior. For instance, attributing someone's success to their hard work or luck.
Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to overemphasize internal factors and underestimate external factors when explaining others' behavior. For example, blaming a person's personality for being late rather than considering traffic conditions.
Actor-Observer Bias: The tendency to attribute one's behavior to external factors and others' behavior to internal factors. An example would be attributing your own lateness to traffic but attributing someone else's lateness to laziness.
Prejudice: Preconceived negative attitudes or beliefs about individuals based on their group membership. An example would be holding negative views about a certain ethnic group without knowing any individuals from that group personally.
Stereotype: A generalized belief about a group of people. For instance, assuming that all teenagers are rebellious and lazy.
Discrimination: Unjust or prejudicial treatment of individuals based on their group membership. An example would be refusing to hire someone based on their race.
Just-World Phenomenon: The belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get. For example, attributing poverty to laziness rather than systemic issues.
Social Identity: The part of an individual's self-concept that is derived from their group memberships. For instance, identifying as a member of a sports team or a particular cultural group.
Ingroup: A group to which an individual belongs and identifies with. An example would be feeling a sense of camaraderie with classmates in the same study group.
Outgroup: A group to which an individual does not belong or identify with. For example, viewing people from a rival sports team as the "enemy."
Ingroup Bias: The tendency to favor one's own group over others. An example would be giving preferential treatment to colleagues from the same department.
Scapegoat Theory: Blaming a specific group for societal problems. For instance, blaming immigrants for economic issues.
Other-Race Effect: The tendency to better recognize faces of one's own race. For example, having difficulty distinguishing between individuals of a different race.
Attitudes: Evaluative judgments about people, objects, or ideas. For example, having a positive attitude towards recycling.
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: The tendency for people to be more likely to agree to a large request after agreeing to a small one. An example would be agreeing to sign a petition after initially agreeing to answer a short survey.
Role: A set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. For instance, the role of a teacher includes instructing students and maintaining discipline.
Leon Festinger: A social psychologist known for his work on cognitive dissonance theory, which explains how individuals strive for consistency in their beliefs and attitudes.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory: The theory that individuals experience discomfort when their beliefs or attitudes are inconsistent, leading them to seek harmony. For example, feeling conflicted after realizing that smoking is harmful to health while being a smoker.
Persuasion: The process of changing attitudes or behaviors. An example would be a marketing campaign convincing people to buy a new product.
Peripheral Route Persuasion: Persuasion that occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness. For instance, buying a product because a celebrity endorses it.
Central Route Persuasion: Persuasion that occurs when people are motivated to think about the message and are influenced by the strength of the arguments. For example, being convinced to donate to a charity after reading a detailed report on their impact.
Norms: Rules or expectations for appropriate behavior within a group. An example would be standing in line at a grocery store.
Solomon Asch: A social psychologist known for his conformity experiments, which demonstrated the influence of group pressure on individual behavior.
Conformity: Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to match that of others in a group. For instance, laughing at a joke even if you don't find it funny because others are laughing.
Normative Social Influence: Conforming to group norms to fit in and gain approval. An example would be dressing a certain way to be accepted by a social group.
Informational Social Influence: Conforming to group behavior because of a desire to be correct and gain information. For example, following a crowd during an emergency because you assume they know the way to safety.
Obedience: Compliance with commands from an authority figure. An example would be following traffic rules because they are enforced by law enforcement.
Stanley Milgram: A social psychologist known for his controversial obedience experiments, which studied the willingness of participants to obey authority figures even when it involved harming others.
Social Facilitation: The tendency for people to perform better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when in the presence of others. For example, a musician playing better in front of an audience.
Social Loafing: The phenomenon where individuals exert less effort in a group setting compared to when working alone. An example would be a group project where some members contribute less because they assume others will pick up the slack.
Deindividuation: The loss of self-awareness and restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. For instance, individuals in a riot may engage in destructive behavior they wouldn't do alone.
Group Polarization: The tendency for group discussion to enhance group members' initial tendencies. For example, a group of risk-takers becoming even more inclined to take risks after discussing their views.
Groupthink: A mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. An example would be a team making a poor decision due to pressure to conform.
Culture: The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
Tight Culture: A culture with strong norms and low tolerance for deviant behavior. For example, a strict religious community with clear rules and expectations.
Loose Culture: A culture with weaker norms and greater tolerance for diverse behavior. For instance, a more relaxed and permissive society.
Aggression: Behavior intended to harm others. An example would be physical violence during a conflict.
Frustration-Aggression Principle: The theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress. For example, road rage resulting from traffic congestion.
Social Script: A culturally provided mental program that guides behavior in familiar situations. For instance, knowing how to act during a job interview based on societal expectations.
Mere Exposure Effect: The phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them. For example, liking a song more after hearing it multiple times.
Passionate Love: An intense emotional state characterized by longing, desire, and excitement. For example, the initial stages of a romantic relationship.
Companionate Love: A deep, affectionate attachment that develops over time in a long-term relationship. For instance, the love between long-married partners.
Equity: A condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give. For example, both partners contributing equally to household chores.
Self-Disclosure: Revealing personal information about oneself to others. An example would be sharing your fears and dreams with a close friend.
Altruism: Unselfish regard for the welfare of others. For instance, helping a stranger in need without expecting anything in return.
John Darley and Bibb Latané: Social psychologists known for their research on bystander intervention and the bystander effect.
Bystander Effect: The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present. For example, assuming someone else will call for help during an accident.
Social Exchange Theory: The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, aiming to maximize benefits and minimize costs. For instance, helping a friend move in exchange for their help in the future.
Reciprocity Norm: An expectation that people will help those who have helped them. An example would be returning a favor after someone has done you a kindness.
Social-Responsibility Norm: An expectation that people will help those in need without expecting anything in return. For example, assisting a lost child on the street.
Conflict: A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. For instance, a disagreement between coworkers on a project approach.
Social Trap: A situation in which conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. An example would be overfishing in a shared resource area.
Mirror-Image Perceptions: Mutual views often held by conflicting people, where each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A belief that leads to its own fulfillment. For example, expecting someone to be unfriendly may lead to behaviors that elicit unfriendliness.
Superordinate Goals: Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation. For instance, working together to combat a common environmental threat.
Grit: Grit refers to the perseverance and passion for long-term goals. An example of grit is a student who faces challenges in their studies but continues to work hard and stay motivated to achieve their academic goals.
Personality: Personality refers to an individual's unique pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. An example of personality is someone who is outgoing, friendly, and enjoys socializing with others.
Psychodynamic Theories: Psychodynamic theories focus on the role of unconscious processes in shaping behavior and personality. An example is Freud's psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes the influence of early childhood experiences on adult behavior.
Psychoanalysis: Psychoanalysis is a therapeutic approach that aims to bring unconscious conflicts to conscious awareness. An example is a person undergoing psychoanalysis to explore and resolve underlying psychological issues.
Sigmund Freud: Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis. An example of Freud's work is his theory of the unconscious mind and the structure of personality (id, ego, superego).
Unconscious: The unconscious mind contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are not consciously recognized. An example is repressed memories that influence behavior without the individual being aware of them.
Free Association: Free association is a psychoanalytic technique where a person freely expresses their thoughts and feelings without censorship. An example is a therapy session where a client speaks whatever comes to mind to uncover unconscious conflicts.
Id, Ego, Superego: These are the three components of Freud's structural model of the mind. The id operates on the pleasure principle, the ego on the reality principle, and the superego on moral principles.
Defense Mechanisms: Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies used to protect the ego from anxiety. An example is denial, where a person refuses to accept the reality of a situation to cope with stress.
Repression: Repression is a defense mechanism that involves pushing painful or unacceptable thoughts and memories into the unconscious mind. An example is forgetting a traumatic event from childhood.
Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Carl Jung: These are prominent figures in the field of psychology who developed their own theories of personality and psychotherapy. Alfred Adler focused on the importance of individual psychology, Karen Horney on social and cultural influences, and Carl Jung on the collective unconscious and archetypes.
Collective Unconscious: The collective unconscious, proposed by Carl Jung, refers to a shared reservoir of memories and symbols inherited from our ancestors. An example is the universal themes found in myths and fairy tales across different cultures.
Terror-Management Theory: Terror-management theory explores how humans cope with the fear of mortality by developing cultural worldviews and self-esteem. An example is how individuals may seek meaning and purpose in life to alleviate existential anxiety.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): The TAT is a projective test where individuals interpret ambiguous pictures to reveal their underlying thoughts, feelings, and motivations. An example is using the TAT to assess personality traits and unconscious conflicts.
Rorschach Inkblot Test: The Rorschach test is a projective test where individuals interpret inkblots to reveal their thoughts and emotions. An example is using the Rorschach test to assess personality characteristics and psychological disorders.
Abraham Maslow: Abraham Maslow was a humanistic psychologist known for his hierarchy of needs theory, which emphasizes self-actualization and personal growth. An example is Maslow's pyramid illustrating the progression of human needs from basic survival to self-fulfillment.
Humanistic Theories: Humanistic theories focus on the potential for personal growth and self-actualization. An example is Carl Rogers' person-centered therapy, which emphasizes empathy, unconditional positive regard, and authenticity in the therapeutic relationship.
Self-Actualization: Self-actualization is the realization of one's full potential and personal growth. An example is an artist who feels fulfilled and expresses their creativity through their work.
Self-Transcendence: Self-transcendence involves connecting with something greater than oneself and experiencing a sense of unity with others and the universe. An example is a spiritual leader who finds purpose in serving others and promoting peace.
Carl Rogers: Carl Rogers was a humanistic psychologist known for his client-centered therapy and emphasis on empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard. An example is a therapist who provides a safe and supportive environment for clients to explore their feelings and experiences.
Unconditional Positive Regard: Unconditional positive regard is an attitude of acceptance, respect, and warmth towards others without judgment or conditions. An example is a parent who shows love and support to their child regardless of their behavior.
Self-Concept: Self-concept is how individuals perceive and evaluate themselves. An example is a person who sees themselves as compassionate, intelligent, and hardworking based on their self-perception.
Trait: Traits are stable characteristics that influence behavior and personality. An example is the trait of extraversion, which describes individuals who are outgoing, sociable, and energetic.
Personality Inventory: A personality inventory is a questionnaire or assessment tool used to evaluate an individual's personality traits, behaviors, and characteristics. An example is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which categorizes individuals based on personality preferences.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): The MMPI is a widely used personality assessment tool that measures various psychological traits and identifies psychopathology. An example is using the MMPI to assess personality disorders and mental health issues.
Empirically Derived Test: An empirically derived test is developed through research and statistical analysis to ensure its validity and reliability. An example is the MMPI, which was created using empirical data to measure personality traits and psychopathology.
Robert McCrae and Paul Costa: Robert McCrae and Paul Costa are psychologists known for their research on personality traits and the development of the Big Five personality factors.
Big Five Factors: The Big Five factors (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism) are broad dimensions of personality that capture individual differences in behavior and traits.
Social-Cognitive Perspective: The social-cognitive perspective emphasizes the interaction between personal factors, environmental influences, and behavior. An example is Albert Bandura's social learning theory, which highlights the role of observational learning and self-efficacy in behavior.
Albert Bandura: Albert Bandura is a psychologist known for his contributions to social learning theory and the concept of self-efficacy. An example is Bandura's Bobo doll experiment, which demonstrated the impact of observational learning on behavior.
Behavioral Approach: The behavioral approach focuses on observable behaviors and the influence of the environment on behavior. An example is using behavior modification techniques to change maladaptive behaviors through reinforcement and punishment.
Reciprocal Determinism: Reciprocal determinism is the idea that behavior is influenced by personal factors, environmental factors, and cognitive processes that interact and influence each other. An example is a person's decision to exercise regularly (personal factor) being influenced by their social environment and beliefs about health.
William James: William James was a philosopher and psychologist known for his contributions to functionalism and theories of consciousness. An example is James' concept of the self as a continuous stream of consciousness and personal identity.
Self: The self is an individual's sense of personal identity and self-awareness. An example is a person's self-concept, which includes beliefs, values, and perceptions about oneself.
Spotlight Effect: The spotlight effect is the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others notice and evaluate our appearance, behavior, and performance. An example is feeling self-conscious about a minor mistake in a presentation, thinking that everyone noticed it.
Self-Esteem: Self-esteem is the subjective evaluation of one's self-worth and value. An example is feeling confident and proud of one's accomplishments, leading to high self-esteem.
Self-Efficacy: Self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish tasks. An example is a student who believes in their problem-solving skills and feels confident in tackling challenging assignments.
Self-Serving Bias: The self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute success to internal factors and failure to external factors to protect self-esteem. An example is taking credit for a successful project but blaming external factors for a failed outcome.
Narcissism: Narcissism is a personality trait characterized by grandiosity, self-importance, and a lack of empathy for others. An example is a person who constantly seeks admiration and validation from others while disregarding the feelings of those around them.
Individualism: Individualism is a cultural orientation that emphasizes personal goals, independence, and self-expression over group interests. An example is valuing personal achievement and autonomy in decision-making.
Collectivism: Collectivism is a cultural orientation that prioritizes group harmony, cooperation, and interdependence over individual needs. An example is a community that values collective well-being and social cohesion.
Motivation: Motivation is the internal drive that energizes and directs behavior towards achieving goals. An example is a student studying diligently to earn good grades and pursue academic success.
Instinct: Instinct is an innate, biologically determined behavior that is characteristic of a species. An example is a newborn baby instinctively rooting for milk when hungry.
Physiological Need: Physiological needs are basic biological requirements for survival, such as food, water, and shelter. An example is feeling hungry and seeking food to satisfy the body's physiological need for nutrients.
Drive-Reduction Theory: A theory that suggests that motivation arises from the need to reduce drives (such as hunger or thirst) to maintain homeostasis. For example, feeling hungry motivates you to eat to reduce the drive for food.
Homeostasis: The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal balance. An example is how the body regulates temperature to keep it within a certain range to ensure optimal functioning.
Incentive: A stimulus that motivates behavior. For instance, receiving a bonus at work can serve as an incentive to work harder.
Yerkes-Dodson Law: This law states that performance is best at an intermediate level of arousal. For example, a moderate level of stress can enhance performance on a test, but too much stress can hinder performance.
Affiliation Need: The need for social connections and relationships. An example is seeking out friends or joining a club to fulfill the need for social interaction.
Self-Determination Theory: A theory that emphasizes the role of intrinsic motivation in driving behavior. For instance, engaging in a hobby purely for the enjoyment of it rather than for external rewards.
Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in an activity for its own sake because it is inherently rewarding. An example is painting because you find it personally fulfilling.
Extrinsic Motivation: Engaging in an activity for external rewards or to avoid punishment. For example, studying for a test to get a good grade.
Ostracism: Being excluded or ignored by a group. An example is feeling left out of a social gathering.
Achievement Motivation: The drive to excel or succeed. An example is setting challenging goals to push yourself to achieve more.
Walter Cannon: A psychologist known for his work on the fight-or-flight response and the concept of homeostasis in the body. For example, Cannon's research on the physiological responses to stress has influenced our understanding of how the body reacts to threats.
Glucose: A simple sugar that serves as the primary source of energy for the body's cells. For instance, consuming carbohydrates provides the body with glucose for energy.
Set Point: The body's ideal weight or physiological state that it strives to maintain. An example is how the body regulates hunger and metabolism to keep weight within a certain range.
Basal Metabolic Rate: The rate at which the body uses energy while at rest to maintain basic functions. For example, a person with a higher basal metabolic rate may burn more calories even when not exercising.
Obesity: A condition characterized by excessive body fat that can have negative health consequences. An example is the increased risk of heart disease associated with obesity.
Emotion: A complex psychological state involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and subjective experiences. For example, feeling happy after receiving good news.
Stanley Schachter: A psychologist known for his research on emotions and the two-factor theory of emotion. For instance, Schachter's work on how physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation interact to produce emotions has influenced the field of psychology.
Robert Zajonc: A psychologist known for his research on the role of emotion in decision-making and social behavior. For example, Zajonc's studies on the mere exposure effect demonstrate how repeated exposure to stimuli can increase liking.
Joseph LeDoux: A neuroscientist known for his research on the neural basis of emotion and the role of the amygdala in fear responses. For example, LeDoux's work has advanced our understanding of how the brain processes and responds to emotional stimuli.
Richard Lazarus: A psychologist known for his research on stress, coping, and emotion. For instance, Lazarus's cognitive appraisal theory emphasizes the role of individual perceptions in determining emotional responses to stressors.
Polygraph: A device that measures physiological responses (such as heart rate and sweating) to detect deception. For example, polygraphs are sometimes used in criminal investigations to assess the truthfulness of suspects.
Paul Ekman: A psychologist known for his research on facial expressions and emotions. For instance, Ekman's work on universal facial expressions has contributed to our understanding of how emotions are expressed and recognized across cultures.
Facial Feedback Effect: The idea that facial expressions can influence emotions. For example, smiling can lead to feelings of happiness, even if the smile is initially forced.
Behavior Feedback Effect: The concept that engaging in a behavior can influence one's attitudes and emotions. For example, acting confidently in a social situation can lead to increased feelings of self-assurance.