AP Euro: Unit 12 - An Age of Nationalism and Realism

German and Italian Unification

• Austria or Prussia?:
  • Confederation of German States underwent a nationalism movement and were looking to create a German nation
  • options were to merge with either Austria (long proven European power) or Prussia (growing nation)
• Prussian reforms:
  • reforms were meant to convince the German Confederation to join them
  • created Zollverein (customs union) which allowed member states (included all of the German Confederation and excluded Austria) to use roads and rivers free of tolls which stimulated trade
  • established a working constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature
  • voting population was divided into 3 classes based on taxes paid (biggest taxpayers--nobles/middle classes--had the most seats)
• Bismarck:
  • from noble/Junker class
  • had lots of foreign policy experience
  • prime minister and chancellor of Prussia
  • ignored parliament and did what he wanted
  • ultimate realist
  • intended to use warfare to achieve his goals
  • practitioner of realpolitik (not making decisions on moral or ideological reasoning, but reality/what is possible)
• the Danish War:
  • provinces of Schleswig and Holstein (German populations) were part of Denmark --> Bismarck persuaded Austria to join Prussia in an invasion of these provinces (it was a success)
    • Prussia got Schleswig and Austria got Holstein
  • border regions created tensions between Austria and Prussia so Bismarck made moves to ally with the German Confederation and isolate Austria
• Austro-Prussian War:
  • Bismarck got agreements from Russia and France to stay neutral, and allied with Italian States (promised them Venetia)
  • Prussia won because it was industrialized (more railroads to move troops, modern guns that were able to reload quickly, etc.)
  • Austria had to give Venetia to the Italians and leave the now Northern German Confederation
  • each state in the Northern German Confederation kept their independence but the King of Prussia was the head of the Confederation 
  • Prussia annexed Holstein, Hannover, and Hesse-Cassel
• Franco-Prussian War:
  • started after Isabella II of Spain was ousted by a revolution and Spain offered the throne to relatives of the Prussian king (cousin of William: Leopold)
  • Napoleon III feared more Prussian influence so he asked Leopold to be taken out and William (Prussian king) to apologize --> Bismarck edited the correspondence between Napoleon III and William which made France declare war on Prussia
  • Prussia was military dominant and the southern German Confederation had joined them --> able to capture the French army and Napoleon III
  • France surrendered:
    • forced to adopt another republic
    • paid 1 billion dollars
    • gave up Alsace and Lorraine
  • William I was named the 1st emperor of the new German empire: 
    • Europe's new top power
    • no longer called the German Confederation or Prussia
• Germany strengthens:
  • industrialization:
    • industrialized from the start --> has experienced and diligent workers
    • surpassed England
  • military:
    • won against 2 major powers easily
  • corporations:
    • some of the world's largest corporations (modeled after the Dutch's) in railroads, steel, weapons manufacturing, cutting-edge optics, dyes, and chemicals
    • had partnerships with universities:
      • corporations funded universities so universities would help with the goals of corporations by teaching their students certain skills/info
      • universities then produced educated people who joined these corporations
      • positive feedback cycle
• Bismarck on the home front:
  • not successful as he was militarily
  • kulturkampf:
    • war on Catholic Church
    • Bismarck felt that people had loyalty to the pope, not the nation, so he put the govt in charge of schools, gave the govt the power to appoint priests, and initiated the expulsion of Jesuits
    • Catholics won seats in Reichstag (legislature) so Bismarck had to make peace with them
  • war on socialists:
    • socialists attempted to assassinate the Kaiser/emperor so Bismarck passed anti-socialist laws
    • workers unified for a socialist cause
• Italy in 1850:
  • still broken up into many smaller states but has all ingredients for a nationalistic revolution to unify it
  • 3 guys help unify Italy:
    • Giuseppe Mazzini:
      • founded 'Young Italians,' a pro Italy youth nationalist secret society
      • tried to set up a revolutionary republic in Rome but the Austrian army stopped him
      • Napoleon III, new French emperor after the removal of Louis Philippe, garrisons French troops in Rome to prevent this from happening again 
      •  revolution failed but the seeds of nationalism were planted (occupation of Italy by foreign armies made them want to make them leave)
    • Cavour:
      • Piedmont (largest/most stable Italian state) began unification and doesn't contain Rome so there were no troops garrisoned there
      • King Emmanuel II appointed Camillo de Cavour (shrewd politician, Italian nationalist, noble, liberal) to prime minister
      • Cavour fostered the development of infrastructure and government involvement with businesses to create new industries --> took money made to invest into Piedmont's military, and knew he was outclassed by the Austrian military so he allied with France (realpolitik)
      • 1858 - Cavour reached agreement with Napoleon III and William I of Prussia:
        • together, they would drive Austria out of Italian territories
        • Napoleon III would marry King Emmanuel's daughter and rule central Italy
        • Piedmont would get Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, and Modena
        • Prussia would get Schleswig and Holstein (northern territories)
        • France would get Nice and Savoy
    • at the same time as Cavour and France in the north, a separate Italian nationalist movement started in the south under Garibaldi:
      • Garibaldi raised an army of redshirts and conquered the two Sicilies and began towards Rome
      • Papal states, Cavour's north, and Garibaldi's south all wanted unification
      • Garibaldi (democratic republicanism) and Cavour (constitutional monarchy) met in the middle and didn't see eye to eye but Garibaldi stepped aside and let Cavour unify Italy
• complete Italian unification:
  • unification of Piedmont, Papal states, and two Sicilies in 1861
  • Venice added when Italy allied with Prussia in Austro-Prussian War
  • Rome added when France withdrew troops to fight Franco-Prussian War
  • 1870 - Italy as we know it today

Realism, Nationalism Abroad, and an Age of Reform

• realism:
  • literary and artistic movement focused on the harsh reality of life in the Industrial Revolution's crowded and dirty cities
  • Charles Dickens wrote Oliver Twist which depicts an abused orphan in London
  • Victor Hugo wrote Les Misérables which shows the brutal struggles of the lower class in French society
• realism artwork:
  • focused on ordinary subjects, especially the working class
  • shows harsh reality and life as it is
  • more realistic than Romantic works
• new invention creates new art:
  • first photography during 1840s --> artists were worried that the new invention would make them obsolete because photos captured every detail
    • inorganic photography (uptight and staged)
  • impressionism solved artists' problem of 'why we matter' (started in Paris, impressionist art focused on the first impression; often blurry)
• impressionist artwork:
  • blurry
  • not super realistic or detailed
  • color and shapes are important
  • captured fleeting moment
• England in Victorian Era:
  • untouched by revolutionary troubles
  • lower classes had advantages such as representation and rising wages
  • Victorian Age was very stable (one monarch for a long time)
• able government officials:
  • Benjamin Disraeli (Tories/conservative):
    • prime minister
    • expanded voting rights
    • helped Queen gain majority share in Suez Canal Company
  • William Gladstone (Whig/liberal):
    • improved living conditions for the poor
    • free public elementary school
    • opened government positions to the people (civil service exams)
    • introduced secret ballot voting 
    • abolished military commissions
• Canada:
  • 7 Years' War (French and Indian War) --> French had to surrender their north American colonies
  • lots of different people sharing one land:
    • Eastern Canada was settled by the French prior to the end of the war and lots of them remained after the way
    • Acadians (French Quebecers) moved to Louisiana when France lost the 7 Years' War
    • the French lived in peace with natives --> often intermarried creating Metis
    • English Tories fled to Canada during war
  • to ease tensions, Britain passed the Constitutional Act of 1791:
    • established two states:
      • Lower Canada - east, allowed to keep culture, Quebec
      • Upper Canada - west, English traditions, culture protected, Ontario
  • early 1800s:
    • unrest in provinces:
      • small groups of elites controlled all wealth and all government power --> failed rebellion in both states to free themselves from British rule
  • Britain learned from the rebellion in the US that ultimately led to the Revolutionary War so they tried diplomacy:
    • sent politician to compile complaints
    • passed Act of Union (created legislature with elected members from Canadian provinces, created 1 Canadian province, Canada was able to run internal affairs but Britain controlled their foreign policy (self-govt))
  • millions of immigrants came
  • fear of American territorial expansion in the west --> Canada urged Britain the need for a unified Canadian confederation --> Britain agreed --> Dominion of Canada
  • expanded east then westward
  • had own parliament (modeled after Britain's, they still love royals)
  • lots of different ethnicities (some immigrants from the Gold Rush)
  • transcontinental railroad during its industrial revolution (Canadian Pacific Railway)
• Canada's nationalism problem:
  • caused by of mixing of races and cultures
  • the majority of Quebec was still French and some wanted to break away
  • problems with natives as Canada expanded west (unfair treaties, violence, destruction) --> Metis revolted against Canada
• Australia:
  • the Dutch were the first Europeans to reach Australia
  • native people (eradicated by English settlers) called aborigines migrated from southeast Asia and were isolated for 40 thousand years
    • had no exposure to industrialization --> basically lived in the Stone Age
  • 1700s:
    • Great Britain sent criminals to penal colonies in Americas but revolution closed that outlet so prisoners had to survive the voyage to Australia, adjust to the climate, and survive in dangerous conditions
    • criminals were used to clear land for settlers, soldiers in charge
  • settlers came in the early 1800s, gold rush brought more, land was suitable for grazing so many stayed
  • grazing and agricultural needs took the settlers farther inland --> clashed and killed native aboriginal people
    • people of native/British ancestry had a hard time being accepted in society
  • since Australia was only inhabitable near the coasts, population centers grew on opposite coasts --> all Aussies wanted independence --> Britain reorganized Australia into the Independent Commonwealth of Australia
  • created own constitution but kept ties to British crown (like Canada)
• New Zealand:
  • claimed by Britain
  • missionaries landed to convert natives/Maoris (seafarers and farmers, defended land) --> Maoris lost the clash with the British 
  • wave of settlers --> more British than Maoris
  • Britain annexed New Zealand
  • good climate for farming
  • had prime minister, legislature with elected members, and remained closely tied to Britain (like Canada and Australia)
  • won independence in 1907
• America's nationalism problem/Civil War:
  • northern states:
    • industrial
    • social mobility through entrepreneurship and hard work
    • abolished slavery
  • southern states:
    • dependent on slavery
    • agrarian society
    • little social mobility
  • problems:
    • the balance of free and slave states made an insecure balance of power in the government
    • states newly added to the union in the west didn't want slavery
  • result:
    • southern states attempted to secede from the nation
• 2 types of nationalism:
  • type 1 (Prussia):
    • nationalist forces united many smaller kingdoms into 1 cohesive German nation
  • type 2 (Austria): 
    • many nations in Austria wanted to break away and form their own nations
  • similarities:
    • national pride
    • common language, customs, history, traditions, and culture
• problems in Austria:
  • freed serfs in response to France's rebellion
  • tried to establish Reichsrat (parliament) that included many nationalities but only German-speakers were represented --> unhappiness for all other groups (especially Hungary, the largest state)
  • Austria was finally industrializing --> increased unhappiness
• Hungarian unhappiness:
  • Hungary was the largest cultural territory in the Austrian empire
  • students in Pest demanded extra rights but none were given by the emperor --> Hungary declared their independence
  • new emperor, Francis Joseph, wanted Hungary back into the empire --> ordered army to invade Hungary --> Hungary army beats them
• principle of intervention (Russia):
  • Francis Joseph begged Russia for aid --> Russian troops invaded Hungary from the east
  • Hungary surrendered and once again, they were under Austria's empire
  • Austria owed Russia a favor because they helped significantly
• bad decision making of Francis Joseph:
  • when troops were called from Lombardy/northern Italy to fight the Hungarians, Italy invaded Lombardy and annexes it
  • Austria then lost 2 wars:
    • lost Venice and Lombardy to Prussia, Italy, and France
    • surrendered Holstein to Prussia
    • surrendered Venice and Lombardy to Italy
    • lost all influence over Germany
  • doesn't pay back Russia's favor (to help them) during the Crimean War --> alliance formed at the Congress of Vienna broke up
• formation of a dual monarchy:
  • everyone was unhappy in Austria
  • Ausgleich (compromise): persuasive politician, Frenec Deak, proposed the dual-monarchy of Austria-Hungary
    • each had a separate constitution, legislature, and capital
    • shared army, foreign policy, and monarch (Francis Joseph)
  • the compromise made other nationalities feel angrier and belittled but it was a little more stable than Austria alone
• Ottoman empire loses ground:
  • like Austria, they won their empire through conquest so there were many nationalities
  • larger than Austria, and more disconnected and hard to rule because the Mediterranean Sea split the empire in half
  • nationalist movements in Greece and Serbia won independence, and Bosnians, Romanians, and Bulgarians revolted against Ottoman rule
• Ottoman empire - not in the club:
  • unlike traditional European powers, the Ottomans were Muslim 
    • religious differences and Janissaries made Europeans hate Ottomans 
      • Janissaries - Christian children kidnapped by Ottomans, raised to fight for Ottomans
  • instead of helping the Ottomans (were supposed to because of the principle of intervention), other European nations stole territory and funded resistance to the Ottomans:
    • Austria annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina
    • Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania won independence
    • Russia stole northern territory
• Crimean War (1853-1856):
  • Russia (calls Austria for help but Austria doesn't come) vs. Britain, France, Ottomans, and Austria
  • France, England, Ottomans, and Austria fight to stop Russia's expansion since Russia was larger than the rest of Europe combined
  • Russians fight to gain the right for worship in the east (the right Ottomans gave to the French) and to expand territory to the south for warm water ports (truly motivated by economic benefits)
  • outcomes:
    • defeat for Russia
    • end of alliance from Congress of Vienna
    • more people die from disease than combat
    • Russians unhappy
• imperial Russia:
  • despite being big, Russia was falling behind other European powers because they haven't industrialized
  • still relief on serfs:
    • serfs were kept uneducated --> unable to comprehend machines/ideas/etc. of industrial revolution
    • corrupt system that only benefitted nobles
    • slave-like conditions
    • farms weren't productive
• abolition of serfdom:
  • Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom:
    • govt bought land from nobles (who kept the best land for themselves) and gave it to peasants (who had to repay the govt in the long run)
    • enforcement of payments were done by Mir (village commune)
      • Mir didn't let peasants leave so they were still technically bound to the land
• other Russian reforms:
  • created local courts and new judicial system with equality before law
  • created zemstvos (regional assemblies that provided some self governance):
    • could've provided public services and levied taxes to pay for these services but nobles occupied the majority of the seats in zemstvos
• reaction to reforms:
  • peasants were unhappy because they wanted more change rapidly
  • nobles were unhappy because their livelihood was threatened and reforms undermined the institutions of society
  • peasants identified with populism:
    • since Russian peasants were the backbone of society, they deserved land and freedom
    • the village commune could serve as independent self governing bodies that initiated reform
  • populist Vera Zasulich shot governor and inspired radical populist group to assassinate Alexander II --> all reforms were rescinded by Alexander III
• other reforms to society:
  • Charles Darwin visited the Galapagos to study nature 
  • Darwin proposed the theory of evolution (all creatures descended from 1 ancestor in a evolutionary developmental process) in response to environmental stimuli
  • led to the theory of natural selection where only members of a population best suited to an environment survive to pass on dominant genes) and artificial selection (ex. breeding)
• reactions to Darwin:
  • people felt hurt because it made people just another organism and not special beings the Catholic Church told them they were
  • disturbed because it made the nature of this world, a constant struggle for survival
  • tore down enlightened world people were trying to build
  • gradually gained acceptance because people used it to justify racism
• Louis Pasteur and germ theory:
  • discovered germs (microorganisms in blood of diseased patients)
  • chemist who believed in chemical remedies for human diseases
  • used boric acid to successfully kill harmful bacteria in blood
  • created vaccine for rabies --> eventually led to vaccines for cholera, etc.
  • pioneered pasteurization (heating and rapidly cooling to kill bacteria) which prevented the spoilage of wine and milk
• health care revolution:
  • Paris hospitals established a new level of care
  • active physical examinations of live patients improved understanding of human anatomy
  • improved documentation
  • examinations of corpses after death (autopsies) of patients examined before dying provided helpful insight
  • better understanding of human health
  • Robert Koch identified bacterium that caused tuberculosis
• Florence Nightingale:
  • nurse that described the unsanitary conditions in field hospitals during the Crimean War
  • noble
  • took charge of hospital and kept everything clean and sterile --> morality rates improved
  • founded first nursing school in England
• new surgical procedures:
  • sterilization helped stop infection
  • Joseph Lister developed antiseptic (stopped infection post surgery)
  • sulfuric ether and chloroform used as anesthesia --> less chaotic operating environments --> improved success rates
• schools of medicine:
  • 4 year programs and standards for graduation replaced mediocre apprenticeships and ineffective training
• government interventions:
  • when germ theory was accepted, govts adopted public health and sanitation measures:
    • purification of water before public use
    • adequate disposal of waste
    • vaccinations
    • mandatory pasteurization of liquids
    • propaganda to raise public awareness of health risks
• Jeremy Beckham:
  • believed govt should be more involved in society
  • utilitarianism:
    • provide the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people possible
  • believed all new laws and govt actions should be judged by utility (do they provide more happiness than pain)
• communism (radical socialism):
  • ideas outlined in the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx
  • society had 2 groups:
    • proletariat (working class)
    • bourgeoise (the rich)
  • proletariat would eventually rise up and seize the means of production for themselves and create a truly classless society where wealth and power are shared
  • no private property
  • called for international revolution
• workers of the world did not unite:
  • people considered themselves members of their nations first and communist second --> worldwide revolution fails
  • several communist nations (some were successful):
    • Russia
    • China
    • Cuba
  • capitalism and communism are opposites --> communist and capitalist nations often don't get along