History of the Reformation and the Theology of Martin Luther
Transition to the Reformation Period
The historical timeline moves from the medieval period into the Reformation period.
The period is defined by intense activity aimed at challenging the existing power structures of the Roman Catholic Church.
While the Reformation sought to challenge church power, certain preceding events actually bolstered it temporarily before the movement took hold.
Activities Increasing Roman Catholic Church Power: The Crusades
Definition and Pretext: The Crusades were essentially attacks on political rivals conducted under the guise of religious motivation.
The Holy Land: The primary religious narrative was that these expeditions were intended to free Palestine (the Holy Land) from Islamic rule.
Reality in Palestine: Upon arrival, crusaders found that Jewish and Muslim populations were living in a state of relative peace. The Christians, however, sought to kill both Muslims and Jewish people.
Economic and Social Drivers:
The Crusades were heavily influenced by inheritance rules in medieval Europe.
Typically, the oldest son inherited the entirety of the estate.
The "second son" and "third son" were forced to find other means of support.
Due to improved farming methods influenced by monasteries, lifespans increased and more children (specifically younger sons) survived to adulthood.
This created a surplus of people needing land and livelihoods, making warfare a profitable career path.
Papal Control and Promises: The Pope maintained control by promising that participants who died during a crusade would go straight to heaven, bypassing the standard afterlife requirements.
The Financial Motive: The lack of purely religious motivation is evidenced by the Fourth Crusade, wherein crusaders attacked Constantinople—a Christian city—to steal wealth.
Venice: The city of Venice grew into its modern form because it served as a primary staging ground for the Crusades.
Activities Increasing Roman Catholic Church Power: The Conquistadors
Colonization and Plunder: The Conquistadors were colonizers and conquerors who plundered the Americas with explicit papal blessing.
Slavery and Forced Conversion: They were responsible for bringing slavery to the Americas and forcing the conversion of hundreds of thousands of indigenous people to Christianity.
Outcome: Eventually, the Roman Catholic Church rejected their methods, leading to the broader transition into the era of colonization.
Factors Giving Rise to the Reformation Sentiment
Growing National Sentiment: A rising sense of shared identity among specific groups, such as German-speaking people, who felt they had more in common with each other than with a distant church hierarchy.
Declining Church Authority: The hierarchy's power was fading, partially due to events like the "multipopes" (The Western Schism).
Intellectual and Spiritual Movements: The rise of mysticism and humanism contributed to the desire for internal church change.
The Flashpoint: Indulgences
Definition: An indulgence was a promise of a reduction of punishment for sin in the afterlife in exchange for a gift (typically money) to the church.
Purgatory:
Indulgences specifically targeted time in Purgatory.
According to Roman Catholic teaching, most people do not go immediately to heaven or hell upon death.
Purgatory is described as a "half of a second chance" where a person is on a trajectory and can work to turn it around or complete it.
The Economy of Indulgences:
They were an essential revenue stream for the Church treasury.
The logic was modeled on the premise that the Pope could make valid promises of grace to cover sins.
They were often inexpensive: e.g., for approximately dollars, one could ostensibly help their grandmother transition from Purgatory to Heaven faster.
While smaller sums from many people added up, rich people were charged higher amounts to further fill the treasury.
Martin Luther and the 95 Theses
John Huss: An earlier critic who argued it was wrong for the church to force people to pay for religious benefits.
Martin Luther's Background: A Roman Catholic priest who presented his arguments against indulgences.
The 95 Theses ():
Luther hung these on the church door, written in Latin.
They were intended for academic/clerical discussion ("churchy people").
Going "Viral":
The theses were translated into German without Luther's immediate knowledge.
The newly available European technology of the printing press allowed for mass production.
Copies were posted on pub doors. Pubs were a central social hub because water was unsafe to drink, making the pub necessary for hydration.
This caused the ideas to spread rapidly throughout Germany.
Consequences and Excommunication:
In , the Catholic Church asked Luther to recant (take back) his views.
Luther refused to recant.
In , Luther was excommunicated at the Diet of Worms.
This sequence of events "accidentally" started the Protestant Reformation.
Luther’s Theological Critique of Indulgences
The Human Dependency Problem: Indulgences rely on the actions of people (people paying and people in the hierarchy making promises).
Augustinian Influence: Luther accepted Augustine’s views on original sin and special grace.
Original Sin: The concept that humans are naturally unable to refrain from sinning.
Special Grace: Something required to do good, which can only be gained through the sacraments.
The Paradox ("The Screwed" Logic):
To get grace, you must perform sacraments (a good work).
But without grace, you cannot do any good works.
Therefore, humans cannot perform sacraments to get the grace they need to perform the sacraments.
Conclusion: Luther viewed indulgences as a "complete and total scam" because humans are incapable of fulfilling the requirements for merit on their own.
Luther's Views on Law and Gospel
The Law:
Refers to any instance where God says to "Do this" or "Don’t do this."
Applies to both the Old Testament (not just the Law of Moses) and the New Testament.
Purpose: To show humans what God expects. Since humans can only sin, the law serves as a "slap to the forehead" to show humans what they cannot do.
The Gospel:
Points toward free grace given directly by God.
Unearned: No exchange took place.
Unmerited: Nothing was done to deserve it.
God does all the work. Once given, this grace allows (but does not guarantee) the ability to refrain from sin.
Luther’s Social and Sacramental Views
Separation of Church and State: Luther believed the church should focus on religious matters and the government on state matters. At the time, the Roman Catholic Church was aligned with the Holy Roman Empire and acted as the government for much of Italy.
Priesthood of All Believers: Every individual has a direct connection to God. There is no need for a priest to act as a mediator or a "hoop" for dispensing grace, as God dispenses grace immediately to the individual.
The Eucharist:
Luther believed in the real presence of Christ in the bread and wine.
Rejection of Transubstantiation: He rejected the view of Radbertus, which claimed the substance of bread changes into Jesus while keeping its appearance.
Consubstantiation: Luther's view (preposition "con" meaning "with"). He described Jesus' presence as being "in, with, and through" the bread and wine.
This view is noted as being similar to the earlier position of Ratramnus.
Legacy and Survival of the Reformation
Political Support: Many German governments supported Luther because his "separation of church and state" views allowed them to expel the Roman Catholic Church and reclaim land.
Resistance: Germany became a center of resistance activity for decades.
Survival: Most people who challenged the church (like John Huss) ended up burned at the stake. Luther survived because he had powerful friends in Germany.
Outcome: His survival allowed him to foster the Reformation movement long-term, leading to the formation of the Lutherans.