What are excitatory neurotransmitters?; Neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential. What effect do excitatory neurotransmitters have on the neuron?; They have excitatory effects, increasing the likelihood of firing an action potential. Name some major excitatory neurotransmitters.; Epinephrine and norepinephrine. What are inhibitory neurotransmitters?; Neurotransmitters that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential. Name some major inhibitory neurotransmitters.; Serotonin and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Which neurotransmitters can create both excitatory and inhibitory effects?; Acetylcholine and dopamine. What determines whether acetylcholine and dopamine have excitatory or inhibitory effects?; The type of receptors that are present. What are modulatory neurotransmitters also known as?; Neuromodulators. How do modulatory neurotransmitters differ from synaptic neurotransmitters in terms of affecting neurons?; They affect a larger number of neurons at the same time. What do neuromodulators influence in the nervous system?; The effects of other chemical messengers. How do synaptic neurotransmitters differ from neuromodulators in terms of impact on receptor neurons?; Synaptic neurotransmitters have a fast-acting impact, while neuromodulators are more slow-acting. How do neuromodulators diffuse compared to synaptic neurotransmitters?; Neuromodulators diffuse across a larger area. What is the main function of Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)?; Acting as the body's main inhibitory chemical messenger. What role does GABA play in the regulation of anxiety?; It contributes to the regulation of anxiety. How do benzodiazepines function in treating anxiety?; By increasing the efficiency of GABA neurotransmitters. What is the primary function of Glutamate in the nervous system?; Playing a role in cognitive functions such as memory and learning. What can excessive amounts of glutamate cause?; Excitotoxicity resulting in cellular death. What diseases and brain injuries are associated with excitotoxicity caused by glutamate build-up?; Alzheimer's disease, stroke, and epileptic seizures. What is oxytocin?; A hormone and a neurotransmitter produced by the hypothalamus. What role does oxytocin play in the body?; It plays a role in social recognition, bonding, and sexual reproduction. What is the synthetic form of oxytocin often used in labor and delivery?; Pitocin. What effect do both oxytocin and Pitocin have during labor?; They cause the uterus to contract. What are endorphins?; Neurotransmitters that inhibit pain signals and promote feelings of euphoria. How are endorphins naturally produced by the body?; In response to pain. What activities can trigger the production of endorphins?; Aerobic exercise and other activities. What is an example of pleasurable feelings generated by the production of endorphins?; Experiencing a 'runner's high'. What is epinephrine also known as?; Adrenaline. What are the two roles of epinephrine in the body?; Hormone and neurotransmitter. Where is epinephrine released from?; The adrenal system. What is the primary function of norepinephrine?; To play an important role in alertness and the body's fight or flight response. When are levels of norepinephrine typically lowest?; During sleep. When are levels of norepinephrine typically highest?; During times of stress. What role does histamine play in the brain and spinal cord?; Acts as a neurotransmitter. In what processes does histamine play a role?; Allergic reactions and immune system response to pathogens. What role does dopamine play in the body?; Coordination of body movements. Besides body movements, what other functions is dopamine involved in?; Reward, motivation, and addiction. How do addictive drugs affect dopamine levels in the brain?; They increase dopamine levels. What disease is caused by the loss of dopamine-generating neurons in the brain?; Parkinson's disease. What are the symptoms of Parkinson's disease?; Tremors and motor movement impairments. What role does serotonin play in the body?; Regulating and modulating mood, sleep, anxiety, sexuality, and appetite. What are SSRIs and what are they used for?; Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, used to treat depression, anxiety, panic disorder, and panic attacks. How do SSRIs work to improve mood and reduce anxiety?; By blocking the reuptake of serotonin in the brain, which balances serotonin levels. What is the role of adenosine in the brain?; It acts as a neuromodulator and is involved in suppressing arousing and improving sleep. What role does adenosine triphosphate (ATP) play in the nervous systems?; It acts as a neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral nervous systems, playing a role in autonomic control, sensory transduction, and communication with glial cells. What are some of the areas where adenosine triphosphate (ATP) may have a part in neurological problems?; Pain, trauma, and neurodegenerative disorders. What is the abbreviation for adenosine triphosphate?; ATP. What is the function of adenosine in the brain?; Suppressing arousing and improving sleep. In what systems does adenosine triphosphate (ATP) act as a neurotransmitter?; Central and peripheral nervous systems. What does research suggest about the role of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in neurological problems?; It may have a part in pain, trauma, and neurodegenerative disorders. What are the potential roles of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the nervous systems?; Autonomic control, sensory transduction, and communication with glial cells. What role does nitric oxide play in the body?; Affects smooth muscles, relaxing them to allow blood vessels to dilate and increase blood flow to certain areas of the body. What are the effects of carbon monoxide when people are exposed to high levels of it?; Toxic and potentially fatal effects. How is carbon monoxide produced naturally by the body used?; As a neurotransmitter that helps modulate the body's inflammatory response. What is acetylcholine?; The only neurotransmitter in its class, found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. With which neurons is acetylcholine primarily associated?; Motor neurons. What role does acetylcholine play in the body?; It plays a role in muscle movements, memory, and learning. What are some things that might go wrong when neurotransmitters do not work right?; Neurons might not manufacture enough of a particular neurotransmitter, too much of a particular neurotransmitter may be released, too many neurotransmitters may be deactivated by enzymes, neurotransmitters may be reabsorbed too quickly, and there can be a number of different adverse effects on the body when affected by disease or drugs. What happens if neurons do not manufacture enough of a particular neurotransmitter?; It can lead to issues when neurotransmitters do not work right. What can happen if too much of a particular neurotransmitter is released?; It can lead to issues when neurotransmitters do not work right. What can happen if too many neurotransmitters are deactivated by enzymes?; It can lead to issues when neurotransmitters do not work right. What can happen if neurotransmitters are reabsorbed too quickly?; It can lead to issues when neurotransmitters do not work right. What are some adverse effects on the body when neurotransmitters are affected by disease or drugs?; There can be a number of different adverse effects on the body. What role do neurotransmitters play in mental health conditions?; Influencing the actions of the body's chemical messengers. What is dopamine associated with?; Addiction and schizophrenia. What role does serotonin play in mental health?; It plays a role in mood disorders including depression and OCD. What type of drugs may be prescribed to treat symptoms of depression or anxiety?; SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors). How are medications used in conjunction with other therapeutic treatments?; They may be used in conjunction with cognitive-behavioral therapy. What are agonists and how do they function?; Agonists increase the effects of specific neurotransmitters. What are antagonists and how do they function?; Antagonists act to block the effects of neurotransmission. How can neuro-acting drugs be categorized based on their effects?; They can be categorized as having direct or indirect effects. What is the difference between direct and indirect effects of neuro-acting drugs?; Direct effects mimic neurotransmitters, while indirect effects act on synaptic receptors. How do drugs with direct effects work?; They work by mimicking neurotransmitters due to their similar chemical structure. How do drugs with indirect effects work?; They work by acting on the synaptic receptors.