Summary of Monarchical Authority and Hobbes' Political Theory
Monarchical Authority and Human Nature
Bossuet on Monarchy: Monarchical authority is a divine endowment with the purpose of serving mankind. Kings must wield power carefully as they will be held accountable to God.
Nature of Kings: Despite their grandeur, kings are ultimately mortal and sinful, destined to fall like any other man.
Thomas Hobbes' Philosophy
About Hobbes: Key figure in political theory, published Leviathan in 1651, advocating for absolutist rule.
State of Nature: Hobbes views human nature as fundamentally pessimistic, characterized by equality in abilities leading to competition, diffidence, and glory, resulting in conflict.
Causes of Conflict: 1. Competition (for gain), 2. Diffidence (for safety), 3. Glory (for reputation).
Consequences of Conflict: In absence of a common power, people exist in a state of war where life is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.
Social Contract and Society
The Leviathan: Hobbes describes the state as an artificial man (the Commonwealth) which requires a sovereign for protection and societal order.
Equality Among Men: Humans are born equal in strength and faculties, yet they perceive themselves as superior, which leads to conflict when desires clash.
Nature of War: War is defined not just by fighting but by a tendency toward conflict during times of insecurity, resulting in continuous fear and lack of societal progress.
Justice and Laws: In a state of nature, there are no laws, justice, or property—only survival of the fittest. Collective agreement is needed for laws to exist.
Monarchical Authority and Divine Right
Bossuet on Monarchy: Jacques-B nigne Bossuet was a primary advocate for the "Divine Right of Kings," asserting that monarchical authority is a divine endowment directly from God. He argued that the royal throne is not the throne of a man, but the throne of God Himself. Consequently, kings must wield power with extreme care, as their stewardship is sacred and they will be held strictly accountable to the Divine for the welfare of their subjects.
Nature and Limitation of Kings: Despite their immense earthly grandeur and being viewed as gods among men, Bossuet emphasizes that kings are ultimately mortal and subject to the same sinful nature as the common man. They are destined to die and fall like any other human, a reminder intended to instill humility and prevent the descent into tyranny.
Thomas Hobbes' Political Philosophy
Historical Context and Leviathan: Thomas Hobbes is a foundational figure in modern political theory. Influenced by the chaos of the English Civil War, he published Leviathan in 1651. His work serves as a defense of absolutism, arguing that only an undivided and absolute sovereign can prevent the collapse of society into civil war.
The State of Nature: Hobbes describes the natural state of humanity (the "State of Nature") as a hypothetical condition without government. His view is deeply pessimistic; he argues that human life is driven by a "perpetual and restless desire of power after power." Because individuals are roughly equal in their physical and mental abilities, everyone has the capacity to kill anyone else, leading to a state of perpetual insecurity.
Causes of Conflict (The Three Pillars of Quarrel):
Competition: Driven by the desire for gain, leading men to invade for the sake of resources ().
Diffidence (Distrust): Driven by the need for safety, leading men to strike first to protect their own lives.
Glory: Driven by the pursuit of reputation and the desire to be valued by others, leading to conflict over trivial slights.
The Consequence of Anarchy: In the absence of a "common power to keep them all in awe," humans exist in a state of "war of every man against every man" (). In this state, there is no industry, culture, or society. As Hobbes famously concluded, the life of man is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
The Social Contract and the Commonwealth
The Leviathan State: To escape the horror of the state of nature, individuals enter into a Social Contract. They collectively agree to transfer their "right to all things" to a sovereign power. This sovereign, or "Leviathan," is an artificial man (the Commonwealth) created for the sole purpose of maintaining peace and providing defense.
The Mechanism of the Contract: The contract is made among the subjects, not between the subjects and the sovereign. Because the sovereign is not a party to the contract, they cannot breach it, meaning their power is absolute and their rule is irrevocable. This ensures that the state remains stable and avoids a return to the state of nature.
Justice and the Role of Law: Hobbes posits that in a state of nature, the concepts of "right" and "wrong," or "justice" and "injustice," simply do not exist. Laws are the product of the sovereign's command. Therefore, where there is no common power, there is no law; and where there is no law, there is no injustice. Property rights only exist once the sovereign establishes laws to protect them; prior to that, everyone has a right to everything they can take and hold ().
Monarchical Authority and the Divine Right of Kings
Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet was a staunch advocate for the "Divine Right of Kings," a concept that views monarchical authority as a sacred endowment bestowed directly by God. According to Bossuet, the royal throne is not merely the seat of a man, but the throne of God Himself. Consequently, kings are expected to exercise their power with extreme diligence and care, as they are ultimately accountable to the Divine for the welfare and guidance of their subjects. Despite this elevated and seemingly god-like status among men, Bossuet reminds us that kings are fundamentally mortal and subject to the same sinful nature as any other human being. Their eventual death and fall serve as a crucial reminder of their earthly limitations, intended to foster humility and discourage the rise of tyrannical rule.
Thomas Hobbes and the State of Nature
Thomas Hobbes represents a cornerstone of modern political theory, specifically through his 1651 work, Leviathan. Moving away from divine justification, Hobbes provides a secular defense of absolutism, arguing that a single, undivided sovereign is necessary to prevent the societal collapse into civil war. His theory begins with a description of the "State of Nature," a hypothetical condition of humanity without government. Hobbes views this state with deep pessimism, describing human nature as a cycle of "perpetual and restless desire of power after power." Because humans are roughly equal in their physical and mental capacities, everyone possesses the potential to kill anyone else, leading to a life of constant insecurity and fear.
Hobbes identifies three primary drivers of human conflict: competition, diffidence, and glory. Competition leads individuals to invade for gain, operating on the principle that . Diffidence, or mutual distrust, causes men to strike first to ensure their own safety, while glory drives conflict over reputation and minor slights. In the absence of a "common power to keep them all in awe," individuals exist in a continuous state of "war of every man against every man" (). In such a state, there is no industry, culture, or societal advancement, and the life of man is famously described as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
The Social Contract and the Commonwealth
To escape the inherent violence of the state of nature, individuals enter into a Social Contract, collectively agreeing to transfer their total "right to all things" to a sovereign power. This sovereign, which Hobbes calls the "Leviathan" or the Commonwealth, is an artificial entity created for the sole purpose of maintaining peace and providing defense. A key aspect of this contract is that it is made between the subjects themselves, not between the subjects and the sovereign. Because the sovereign is not a party to the contract, they cannot be in breach of it, making their power absolute and their rule irrevocable. This structural design ensures that the state remains stable and prevents a regression back into the state of nature.
Furthermore, Hobbes posits that in the state of nature, concepts such as justice, injustice, right, and wrong do not exist. Laws are exclusively the product of the sovereign's commands; therefore, where there is no common power, there is no law, and where there is no law, there is no injustice. Property rights are also non-existent until the sovereign establishes legal frameworks to protect them. Prior to the existence of civil law, a philosophy of "might makes right" prevails, where every individual has a right to anything they have the strength to take and keep ().