The Rise of Nationalism in Europe Study Notes: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Frédéric Sorrieu's Vision of Global Democracy and Social Republics * In 1848, Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, created a series of four prints depicting his dream of a world consisting of 'democratic and social Republics.' * The first print of the series, titled 'The Dream of Worldwide Democratic and Social Republics – The Pact Between Nations,' shows the peoples of Europe and America. * Men and women of all social classes and ages are shown marching in a long train, paying homage to the Statue of Liberty. * Liberty is personified as a female figure holding the torch of Enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other. * In the foreground, the shattered remains of symbols representing absolutist institutions lie on the ground. * Sorrieu's utopian vision groups the peoples of the world as distinct nations, identified by their national costumes and flags. * The United States and Switzerland lead the procession, as they were already nation-states by 1848. * France, recognizable by the revolutionary tricolour, follows them, having just reached the statue. * Germany follows France, carrying the black, red, and gold flag. At the time of the print, the German peoples were not yet a united nation; the flag represented liberal hopes for unification under a democratic constitution. * Following Germany are the peoples of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary, and Russia. * Christ, saints, and angels gaze down from the heavens, symbolizing fraternity among the nations of the world. # Definitions of Key Concepts and Terminology * Absolutist: Historically, this refers to a monarchical government that is centralized, militarized, and repressive, exercising power without legal or constitutional restraints. * Utopian: A vision of a society that is so idealized it is unlikely to actually exist. * Plebiscite: A direct vote through which all the residents of a region are asked to either accept or reject a specific proposal. * Suffrage: The right to vote in political elections. * Conservatism: A political philosophy that emphasizes tradition, established institutions (monarchy, Church), and social hierarchies, preferring gradual development over rapid change. * Feminist: An awareness of women's rights and interests based on the belief in social, economic, and political equality across genders. * Ideology: A system of ideas that reflects a specific social and political vision. # Ernst Renan and the Definition of a Nation * In 1882, the French philosopher Ernst Renan delivered a lecture at the University of Sorbonne titled 'Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?' ('What is a Nation?'). * Renan criticized the idea that a nation is formed solely by common language, race, religion, or territory. * He defined a nation as the culmination of a long history of endeavors, sacrifice, and devotion. * According to Renan, 'social capital' for a national idea consists of a heroic past, great men, and glory. * Essential conditions for being a people include having common glories in the past and a common will in the present ('daily plebiscite'). * Renan argued that a nation has no interest in annexing or holding territory against its will and serves as a guarantee of liberty. # The French Revolution and the Creation of Collective Identity * The first clear expression of nationalism occurred during the French Revolution in 1789. * Sovereignty was transferred from the absolute monarchy to a body of French citizens. * The revolutionaries introduced concepts like 'la patrie' (the fatherland) and 'le citoyen' (the citizen) to emphasize a community with equal rights under a constitution. * A new tricolour flag replaced the former royal standard. * The Estates General was renamed the National Assembly and elected by active citizens. * New hymns were composed, and martyrs were commemorated in the name of the nation. * A centralized administrative system enacted uniform laws for all citizens. * Internal customs duties were abolished, and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted. * French, as spoken in Paris, became the common language, while regional dialects were discouraged. * The revolutionaries believed it was the mission of France to liberate European peoples from despotism. # The Napoleonic Era and Administrative Reform * Napoleon introduced the Civil Code of 1804 (the Napoleonic Code), which abolished privileges based on birth, established equality before the law, and secured property rights. * These reforms were exported to territories under French control, including the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany. * Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system, and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. * Guild restrictions were removed in towns, and transport and communication systems were improved. * Businessmen and small-scale producers benefited from uniform laws, standardized weights and measures, and a common national currency. * Initial reactions were mixed; while some cities (Brussels, Mainz, Milan, Warsaw) welcomed French armies as 'harbingers of liberty,' enthusiasm turned to hostility due to increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription into the French army. * The Battle of Leipzig in 1813 is represented by an image of Napoleon as a postman losing territories (represented by letters falling from his bag) on his way back to France. # The Post-Napoleonic Order and the Congress of Vienna (1815) * Following Napoleon's defeat in 1815, European powers (Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria) met at the Congress of Vienna, hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich. * The Treaty of Vienna aimed to undo Napoleonic changes and restore the old monarchies. * The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power in France, and France was stripped of annexed territories. * A ring of states was established to prevent French expansion: the Kingdom of the Netherlands (including Belgium) to the North, and Genoa added to Piedmont in the South. * Prussia received new territories on its western frontiers, and Austria gained control of northern Italy. * The German confederation of 39 states created by Napoleon was left untouched. * Russia was given part of Poland, while Prussia received a portion of Saxony. * Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic, using censorship to suppress ideas of liberty associated with the French Revolution. # Secret Societies and Giuseppe Mazzini * Fear of repression post-1815 led liberal-nationalists to form secret societies to spread revolutionary ideas and train activists. * Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini was born in Genoa in 1805. He joined the secret society of the Carbonari. * In 1831, at age 26, he was exiled for attempting a revolution in Liguria. * Mazzini founded two underground societies: 'Young Italy' in Marseilles and 'Young Europe' in Berne. * He believed God intended nations to be the natural units of mankind, and that Italy must be a unified republic within a wider alliance of nations. * Metternich described Mazzini as 'the most dangerous enemy of our social order.' # The Age of Revolutions (1830–1848) * Revolutions were led by the educated middle-class elite (professors, teachers, clerks, and commercial middle classes). * July Revolution (1830): The Bourbon kings were overthrown in France and replaced by a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe. * Metternich remarked: 'When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.' * The July Revolution inspired an uprising in Brussels, leading to Belgium's separation from the Netherlands. * Greek War of Independence (1821–1832): Greece, part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century, fought for independence. Support came from Greeks in exile and Western Europeans who admired ancient Greek culture. * The English poet Lord Byron raised funds and fought in the war, dying of fever in 1824. * The Treaty of Constantinople (1832) recognized Greece as an independent nation. # Romanticism and Cultural Nationalism * Romanticism was a cultural movement that focused on emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings rather than science and reason. * German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) argued that true German culture was found among the common people ('das volk') through folk songs and dances ('volksgeist'). * In partitioned Poland, music and language kept national feelings alive despite the loss of territory. * Karol Kurpinski used operas and folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka as nationalist symbols. * The Polish language became a tool of resistance against Russian occupation after 1831. Priests and bishops were imprisoned or sent to Siberia for refusing to preach in Russian. * Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm (born 1785 and 1786) collected folktales to preserve a 'pure' German spirit against French dominance. # Economic Hardship and Social Unrest (1830s–1848) * The 1830s saw massive population growth, overcrowding in cities, and job shortages. * Small producers faced competition from cheap, machine-made goods from England, particularly in textiles. * Peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues where the aristocracy remained powerful. * 1845 Silesian Weavers' Revolt: Weavers revolted against contractors who reduced payments. A mob attacked a contractor's mansion, leading to an army intervention where 11 weavers were shot. * 1848 Paris Revolt: Food shortages and unemployment led to barricades in the streets. Louis Philippe fled, and a National Assembly proclaimed a Republic with suffrage for all adult males over 21 and the right to work. # The 1848 Revolution of the Liberals and the Frankfurt Parliament * In German regions, middle-class professionals and businessmen formed the all-German National Assembly. * On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives convened in the Church of St. Paul in Frankfurt to draft a constitution for a German nation. * They offered the crown to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, who rejected it to join other monarchs in opposition. * The parliament lost popular support because it was dominated by middle classes who ignored the demands of workers. The assembly was eventually disbanded by troops. * Women active in the movement (such as Louise Otto-Peters) were denied suffrage. Carl Welcker argued that women were 'weaker' and meant for the domestic sphere, while feminists argued 'Liberty is indivisible.' * After 1848, autocratic monarchies in Central/Eastern Europe began to grant concessions, such as the abolition of serfdom in the Habsburg dominions and Russia, and Hungarian autonomy in 1867. # Economic Nationalism and the Zollverein * In the early 19th century, German regions were a confederation of 39 states, each with its own currency and weights. * A merchant traveling from Hamburg to Nuremberg in 1833 passed 11 customs barriers, paying a $5\,\%$ duty at each. * The 'elle' (measure of cloth) varied by region: Frankfurt ($54.7\,cm$), Mainz ($55.1\,cm$), Nuremberg ($65.6\,cm$), and Freiburg ($53.5\,cm$). * To overcome these obstacles, the Zollverein (Customs Union) was formed in 1834 at Prussia's initiative. * The union abolished internal tariff barriers and reduced currencies from over thirty to two. * Friedrich List, Professor of Economics at the University of Tübingen, argued that the Zollverein would bind Germans economically into a nation and awaken national sentiment. # Important Historical Timeline Summary * 1789: French Revolution. * 1797: Napoleon invades Italy; Napoleonic wars begin. * 1804: Napoleonic Code. * 1813: Napoleon loses battle of Leipzig. * 1814–1815: Fall of Napoleon; Vienna Peace Settlement. * 1821: Greek struggle for independence begins. * 1824: Death of Lord Byron. * 1830: July Revolution in France. * 1831: Mazzini exiled; armed rebellion in Poland. * 1832: Treaty of Constantinople recognizes Greek independence. * 1833: Founding of Young Europe in Berne. * 1834: Formation of Zollverein. * 1845: Weavers' revolt in Silesia. * 1848: Revolution in Paris; Frankfurt Parliament. * 1859–1870: Unification of Italy. * 1866–1871: Unification of Germany. * 1867: Habsburg rulers grant autonomy to Hungarians. * 1905: Slav nationalism gathers force.