Comprehensive Notes on English, American, Philippine, and Afro-Asian Literature

Anglo-Saxon or Old-English Period

• Origins and Foundation: English literature begins with the songs and stories of the Teutonic ancestors who lived on the borders of the North Sea. In the latter half of the fifth century, three tribes—the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons—conquered Britain and established the foundation of the English nation.

• The First Landing: According to chronicles, the first landing was likely by the Jutes under the leadership of chiefs named Hengist and Horsa. Most historians accept the year $449$ as the date of this event, though it remains doubtful.

• Ancestral Nature: The ancestors were sea rovers and hardy warriors who possessed the capacity for noble and profound emotions. This dual nature is reflected in their poetry, which focused on the sea, plunging boats, adventure, battles, the glory of warriors, brave deeds, and the love of home.

• Poetic Structure and Characteristics: Their poetry utilized alliteration, accent, and an abrupt break in the middle of each line, creating a martial rhythm. It was generally somber, earnest, and filled with religious feeling and fatalism.

• Five Striking Characteristics of Anglo-Saxon Literature:

  • The love of freedom.

  • Responsiveness to nature, particularly her sterner moods.

  • Strong religious convictions and a belief in "Wyrd," or Fate.

  • Reverence for womanhood.

  • A devotion to glory as the primary ruling motive in the life of every warrior.

• Notable Works and Schools:

  • First Poetry: Fragments such as "Widsith," "Deor's Lament," and "The Seafarer," along with the great heroic epic "Beowulf."

  • The Northumbrian School: This school flourished between $650$ and $850$. It included Bede, the first historian (though his works were in Latin), and the poets Cædmon and Cynewulf. In the year $867$, Northumbria was conquered by the Danes, who destroyed monasteries and libraries.

  • English Prose Under Alfred: King Alfred ($848$-$901$) oversaw the beginnings of English prose. The most significant work was the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle," revised and enlarged by Alfred and continued for over two centuries. It is the oldest known historical record of a European nation in its own tongue.

The Anglo-Norman Period

• The Normans: Originally sea rovers from Scandinavia, the Normans conquered northern France in the tenth century (Normandy). They adopted French language and civilization. Their conquest of England began in $1066$ at the Battle of Hastings under William, Duke of Normandy.

• Literary Shift: Norman literature introduced bright, romantic tales of adventure and love, contrasting with the somber strength of Anglo-Saxon works. Over the three centuries following Hastings, the Saxons and Normans united. The Anglo-Saxon speech dropped most Teutonic inflections, absorbed French vocabulary, and evolved into the English language.

• Effects of the Conquest:

  • Implementation of Roman civilization in England.

  • Growth of nationality via a strong centralized government (replacing loose Saxon tribal unions).

  • Emergence of a new language and literature, later exemplified by Chaucer.

• Notable Literary Categories:

  • Geoffrey's History: A source book containing native Celtic legends of King Arthur.

  • French Influence: French writers popularized Arthurian legends.

  • Riming Chronicles: History written in doggerel verse, notably Layamon's "Brut."

  • Metrical Romances: Tales in verse divided into four classes:

    • Matter of France: Stories of Charlemagne and his peers, such as the "Chanson de Roland."

    • Matter of Greece and Rome: Fabulous tales about the Fall of Troy and Alexander.

    • Matter of England: Stories including Bevis of Hampton, Guy of Warwick, and Robin Hood.

    • Matter of Britain: Tales of Arthur and his knights of the Round Table, with "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" considered the best.

  • Miscellaneous Prose and Poetry: "Ancren Riwle" (best early English prose); Orm's "Ormulum"; "Cursor Mundi"; and common people's ballads like "King Horn" and Robin Hood songs.

The Age of Chaucer

• Fourteenth Century Context: Marked by the decline of Norman feudalism, the growth of the English national spirit during French wars, the rise of the House of Commons, and the increased power of the laboring classes.

• Geoffrey Chaucer: One of the greatest English writers, known for variety, story interest, and melody. Along with Wyclif's Bible translation, his work helped develop the Midland dialect into the national language.

• Chaucer's Three Periods:

  • Early (French): Translated "The Romance of the Rose" and wrote minor poems.

  • Middle (Italian): Works include "Troilus and Cressida" and "The Legend of Good Women."

  • Late (English): Produced the masterpiece "Canterbury Tales."

• Other Notable Figures:

  • Langland: Poet and prophet of social reform; wrote "Piers Plowman."

  • Wyclif: Religious reformer; first to translate the gospels into English, fixing a common standard of speech.

  • Mandeville: Alleged traveler; famous for "Mandeville's Travels," reflecting English interest in foreign trade and distant lands.

  • Gower: Wrote in French, Latin, and English; chief English work is "Confessio Amantis," containing $112$ tales.

The Revival of Learning

• Transition Period: Initially a decline from Chaucer's age, followed by intellectual preparation for the Elizabethan Age. For a century and a half, no major work appeared.

• Three Causes of Decline:

  • The long war with France and the civil Wars of the Roses, which destroyed noble patron families.

  • The Reformation, which focused minds on religious questions.

  • The Revival of Learning itself, which encouraged scholars to study classics rather than native literature.

• Historical Developments: Introduction of printing, Discovery of America, start of the Reformation, and the rise of political power among commoners.

• Literary Highlights:

  • Humanism and Renaissance: Significant intellectual progress.

  • Key Works: Erasmus's "Praise of Folly," More's "Utopia," and Tyndale's New Testament translation.

  • Poetry: Wyatt, Surrey, and the courtly makers.

  • Prose: Malory's "Morte d’Arthur" (Arthurian legends in prose).

  • Drama: Popularity of Miracle and Mystery plays.

The Elizabethan Age

• Historical Context: Considered the greatest literary period, driven by the Renaissance, Reformation, and exploration of the New World. Characterized by national spirit, patriotism, tolerance, and enthusiasm.

• Dominant Forms: The drama was the most significant characteristic, reaching its peak with Shakespeare. While it produced excellent prose, it was primarily an age of poetry marked by fresh, romantic feeling.

• The Non-dramatic Poets: Centered around Edmund Spenser, who published "Shepherd's Calendar" in $1579$. His most famous work is "The Faery Queen." Others include Thomas Sackville, Michael Drayton, George Chapman (translator of Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey"), and Philip Sidney (author of "Arcadia" and "The Defense of Poesie").

• Rise of Drama: Progressed from Miracle plays, Moralities, and Interludes to "Ralph Royster Doyster" (first play), "Gammer Gurton's Needle" (first comedy), and "Gorboduc" (first tragedy).

• Shakespeare's Predecessors: Lyly, Kyd, Nash, Peele, Greene, and Marlowe. Christopher Marlowe is the most significant, known for the "one-man type" tragedy of passion and plays like "Tamburlaine," "Faustus," "The Jew of Malta," and "Edward II."

• Successors and Decline: Ben Jonson (greatest successor) wrote comedies like "The Alchemist" and tragedies like "Sejanus." Other successors include Beaumont, Fletcher, Webster, Middleton, Heywood, and Dekker.

• Prose Writers: Francis Bacon is the most notable; works include "Instauratio Magna" (containing "The Advancement of Learning" and "Novum Organum") and his famous "Essays."

The Puritan Age ($1625$-$1675$)

• Historical Revolution: Named for the prevalence of Puritan standards and the figure of John Milton. The period involved the overthrow of monarchy, the execution of Charles I, and the Commonwealth under Cromwell. The period ended around $1660$ with the restoration of Charles II.

• Characteristics of Literature:

  • Lack of unity due to religious and political conflict.

  • Somber character (saddening rather than inspiring).

  • Shift from romantic impulse to critical and intellectual thought.

• Key Contributors:

  • Milton: Famous for early Horton poems and later poetical works.

  • Bunyan: Author of "The Pilgrim's Progress."

  • Metaphysical and Cavalier Poets: Donne, Herbert (Metaphysical); Herrick, Carew, Lovelace, Suckling (Cavalier).

  • Minor Prose: Browne's "Religio Medici," Taylor's "Holy Living and Dying," and Walton's "Complete Angler."

Period of Restoration

• Social Reaction: A wild delight in worldly pleasures replaced Puritan restraint. Theaters reopened; sports like bull/bear baiting revived.

• Literary Shifts: Movement from romance to realism and from Italian influence to French formality. Writers followed the "head rather than the heart," using a clear, concise style and the heroic couplet (monotonous/mechanical perfection).

• John Dryden: The greatest writer of the age, established the heroic couplet and a new prose style.

• Other Works: Butler's "Hudibras" (satire of Puritanism); the Royal Society's scientific studies; philosophy of Hobbes and Locke; diaries of Evelyn and Pepys.

Eighteenth-century Literature

• Historical Background: Period between the Revolution of $1688$ and the French Revolution of $1789$. Includes the Bill of Rights ($1689$). Establishment of cabinet government under George I ($1714$-$1727$). Whig vs. Tory political strife influenced satire.

• Social Development: Clubs and coffeehouses fostered elegance and toleration, though moral standards remained low (reflected in Swift's "Yahoos"). This led to the Methodist revival under Whitefield and Wesley.

• Classifications:

  • Reign of Classicism: Dominated by Alexander Pope (polished poetry/closed couplet), Jonathan Swift (satirist), Addison and Steele (essays in "Tatler" and "Spectator"), Samuel Johnson (dictator of letters), and James Boswell.

  • Revival of Romantic Poetry: Modified formal tendencies. Includes Thomas Gray, Oliver Goldsmith, William Cowper, Robert Burns, and William Blake.

  • First English Novelists: Daniel Defoe ("Robinson Crusoe"), Richardson, Fielding, Smollett, and Sterne.

The Age of Romanticism ($1776$-$1837$)

• Era of Revolution: Influenced by the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution (shift from agricultural to manufacturing). Key political landmarks include the Reform Bill of $1832$ and the abolition of slavery in all colonies in $1833$.

• Characteristics: Triumph of democracy and romanticism. Known as the "Second Creative Period."

  • Six Key Traits: Prevalence of romantic poetry, Scott's historical novel, first women novelists (Austen, Radcliffe), development of literary criticism, economic philosophy (Adam Smith), and birth of literary magazines ("Edinburgh Review").

• Poets: Wordsworth, Coleridge (Lyrical Ballads, $1798$), Scott, Byron, Shelley, and Keats.

• Prose: Essayists Lamb, De Quincey, and Landor; novelist Jane Austen.

The Victorian Age ($1837$-$1901$)

• Historical Progress: Growth of democracy, rapid scientific/mechanical development, and education expansion.

• General Characteristics:

  • Literature reflects daily life and practical problems.

  • Strongly ethical and moral tone.

  • Scientific influence, particularly the principle of "evolution."

  • Fundamental idealism attacking materialism.

• Key Figures:

  • Poets: Tennyson, Browning, Rossetti, Swinburne.

  • Novelists: Dickens, Thackeray, George Eliot; also Reade, Trollope, Brontë, Meredith, Hardy, and Stevenson.

  • Essayists: Macaulay, Arnold, Carlyle, Newman, Ruskin.

  • Scientists: Lyell, Darwin, Huxley, Spencer.

American Literature: Colonial to Revolutionary

• Nature: Initially linked to English tradition but evolved into a separate path.

• Colonial Leaders:

  • Captain John Smith: "A true Relation…" ($1608$) and "The General Historie of Virginia" ($1624$).

  • John Winthrop: "History of New England."

  • William Bradford: "History of Plymouth Plantation."

  • Religious/Poetic works: E. Taylor's "Preparatory Meditations," Wigglesworth's "The Day of Doom."

• Revolutionary Period: Benjamin Franklin's "Poor Richard’s Almanac" and "Autobiography"; Thomas Paine's "Common Sense" and "The American Crisis."

Post-Independence and Unique American Style

• Political Oratory: Jefferson (Declaration of Independence), Hamilton/Madison (Federalist essays), Patrick Henry.

• Early Novelists: W. H. Brown ("The Power of Sympathy"), Rowson ("Charlotte Temple").

• Unique Style:

  • Washington Irving: "A History of New York," "Salmagundi."

  • Edgar Allan Poe: Master of the macabre ("The Fall of the House of Usher").

  • James Fenimore Cooper: "Leatherstocking Tales."

  • Transcendentalism: Emerson and Thoreau ("Walden").

  • Social commentary: Stowe's "Uncle Tom’s Cabin."

American Poetry and Realism

• Poets: Walt Whitman ("Leaves of Grass"), Emily Dickinson, T.S. Eliot ("The Waste Land"), Robert Frost.

• Realism:

  • Mark Twain: Used local dialects in "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn."

  • Henry James: Psychological insight in "Daisy Miller."

  • W.D. Howells: "The Rise of Silas Lapham."

20th Century to Contemporary American Literature

• Early 20th Century: Hemingway, Fitzgerald ("The Great Gatsby"), Faulkner, Sinclair ("The Jungle"), Stein (Lost Generation).

• Depression and Post-War: Steinbeck ("The Grapes of Wrath"), Harper Lee ("To Kill a Mockingbird"), Salinger ("Catcher in the Rye"), Beats like Kerouac and Ginsberg.

• Contemporary: Pynchon (Postmodernism), Toni Morrison (conventions of beauty/incest themes), Cormac McCarthy, Don DeLillo, David Foster Wallace.

• Minority Literature: Maxine Hong Kingston, Amy Tan ("The Joy Luck Club"), Junot Diaz.

Philippine Literature

• Early Works: "Doctrina Christiana" ($1593$), the first printed book. Tomas Pinpin printed "Librong Pagaaralan nang mga Tagalog…" in $1610$.

• Spanish 19th Century: Rise of the "Ilustrado" class. Newspapers like "La Esperanza" ($1846$). Pedro Paterno's "Nínay" (first Filipino novel).

• Jose Rizal: National hero; wrote "Noli Me Tangere" and "El Filibusterismo."

• Propaganda Movement: "La Solidaridad" ($1885$) featured Rizal, Lopez Jaena, and del Pilar.

• Poetic Forms: Ladino poems, Corridos, and Awit (dodecasyllabic quatrains).

• Religious and Secular Drama:

  • Religious: Panunuluyan (Christmas), Cenaculo (Passion), Salubong (Easter), Moriones, Santacruzan (Holy Cross).

  • Secular: Karagatan (vying for a maiden), Duplo (forerunner of balagtasan), Comedia (Christian-Muslim courtly love).

• Modern Era: "Edad de Oro del Castellano en Filipinas" ($1898$-$1940$s). Notable authors: Claro M. Recto, Nick Joaquin, F. Sionil José.

Indian Literature

• Periods:

  • Vedic ($1500$ B.C.-$500$ B.C.): Sacred hymns (Vedas).

  • Epic/Buddhist: Mahabharata ($100,000$ couplets) and Ramayana ($24,000$ couplets).

  • Classical: Sanskrit ("perfect speech") as the main language.

• Religions: Hinduism (Dharma, Artha, Karma, Moksha); Buddhism (Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path).

• Key Texts: Bhagavad Gita, Upanishads, Dhammapada.

• Literary Masterpieces: "Sakuntala" by Kalidasa (greatest Indian writer); "Panchatantra" (beast fables); Rabindranath Tagore (Nobel Prize $1913$, "Gitanjali").

Japanese Literature

• Classical: Murasaki Shikibu's "The Tale of Genji" (early novel form). "Taketori Monogatari" (proto-science fiction involves a moon princess).

• Medieval: "The Tale of the Heike" ($1371$) regarding Minamoto and Taira clans.

• Early-Modern: Chikamatsu Monzaemon (Japan's Shakespeare); Matsuo Bashō (Travel diary poet).

• Modern: Natsume Sōseki ("I Am a Cat", "Kokoro"); Ryūnosuke Akutagawa ("Rashōmon"); Yasunari Kawabata (First Japanese Nobel winner); Haruki Murakami ("Norwegian Wood").

Chinese Literature

• Philosophies: Heavily influenced by Confucianism (Jen/Ren and Li), Taoism (Lao Tzu, "The Way"), and Buddhism.

• Dynastic Milestones:

  • Shang: Writing system with $3,000$ characters.

  • Tang: Golden Age of arts; invention of gunpowder and block printing.

• Masterworks: "Analects" (Confucius); "Tao-Te Ching"; "Record of a Journey to the West" (Wu Chengen); "Dream of the Red Chamber" (Cao Zhan).

• Poets: Po Chu-I (social critic); Li Ch'ing-chao (greatest woman poet).

African Literature

• Orature: Griots (bards) using call-and-response. Trickster stories involve animals like Anansi (spider), Ijàpá (tortoise), and Sungura (hare).

• Pre-Colonial/Colonial: "Epic of Sundiata" (Mali); Ethiopian "Kebra Negast." Slave narratives like Equiano's ($1789$).

• Modern: Wole Soyinka (First post-independence African Nobel winner, $1986$). Négritude movement led by Léopold Sédar Senghor. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o's "The Black Hermit" ($1962$).