AP Comparative Government Notes

Unit 1 Political Systems, Regimes, and Governments

  • Quantitative: Based on numbers, countable or measurable.

  • Qualitative: Information difficult to measure, including speeches, foundational documents, political cartoons, maps, and political commentaries.

  • Correlation: Exists when there is an association between two or more variables.

  • Causation: Changes in one variable cause change in another variable.

  • Empirical Statement: Fact-based information from observations or experimentation.

  • Normative Statement: A value or opinion statement that cannot be proven or disproven.

  • Political Systems: Comprise the laws, ideas, and procedures that address who should have the authority to rule and what the government’s influence on its people and economy should be.

  • States: Political organizations that combine a permanent population with governing institutions to exercise control over a defined territory.

    • This territory is internationally recognized.

  • Nation: A group of people with commonalities including race, language, religion, ethnicity, political identity, and aspirations.

  • Sovereignty: Independent legal authority over a population in a particular territory.

  • Regimes: The fundamental rules that control access to and the exercise of political power; typically endure from government to government.

  • Government: The set of institutions or individuals legally empowered to make binding decisions for a state.

  • Democracy: Follows the rule of law, established in the nation, having a degree of influence over the media (but not full control), and free and fair elections.

  • Transparency: Making information available to the citizens of those nations about policies, media (freedom of speech from journalists), and services.

  • Military Regime: When military leaders hold top positions of governing authority.

    • Often happens when the military holds more power than the leader (e.g., Nigeria).

  • Authoritarianism: Some follow the rule of law but may have “rule by law,” where laws are changed and not truly clear to the citizens; there is influence and control over the media, which is government-funded and filtered to show the government in a positive light, and elections are not free or fair.

  • Free and Fair Elections: Allows competition so that an opposition candidate and party can defeat the ruling party.

  • One-Party State: When rival parties are prohibited from controlling the government power (e.g., CCP of China; an authoritarian regime type).

  • Control of Media: Media can be funded by the state and filtered to what the government wants people to hear, without freedom of speech for journalists, who may be arrested for speaking against the government.

  • Theocracy: Requires the state to be controlled by leaders of a particular religion (e.g., Iran; an authoritarian regime type).

  • Totalitarian: Limited citizens' rights to movement and free choice of employment (an authoritarian regime type).

  • Rule of Law: The principle that a state should be governed by known laws and not arbitrary decisions made by individual government officials.

  • Illiberal Democracy: Hybrid regimes that hold elections with little competition towards the ruling party and tend to have diminished civil liberties (an authoritarian regime type).

  • Democratization: Transforming an authoritarian regime into a democratic regime; the process can temporarily change direction but aims for the same results.

  • Pluralist System: Citizens can affiliate with more independent interest groups to attempt to shape public policies.

  • Gender Quotas: Government or party rules intended to increase female representation in legislatures.

  • Independent Election Commission: Attempts to reduce voter fraud and manipulation and enhance electoral competition.

  • Suffrage: A synonym for voting rights; Universal suffrage means that every citizen above a certain age is legally eligible to vote.

  • Democratic Consolidation: The process where a new democracy becomes more mature and is mostly likely going to remain democratic and not turn to authoritarian.

    • This could be done through election rules and separation of powers.

  • Corporatist System: Government-created and supported interest groups (typically for labor groups, business owners, and agricultural workers) that became the government's preferred linkage institutions for citizen participation.

  • Democratic Electoral System: Accommodates ethnic diversity and increases multiparty competition through rule adjustments, including gender or culture quotas, proportional representation, and changes in vote thresholds and district boundaries.

  • Federal States: Divide power among different levels of government to confer a degree of local autonomy in supplying social and educational services, while also reserving powers for the national government (e.g., Russia, Mexico, Nigeria).

  • Unitary States: Concentrate power at the national level with more uniform policies and potentially more efficient policy making (e.g., China, Iran, UK).

  • Legitimacy: Refers to whether a government’s constituents believe their government has the right to use power in the way they do. Legitimacy confers authority on and can increase the power of a regime and government.

  • Sources of Legitimacy:

    • Popular elections

    • Constitutional provisions

    • Nationalism and Tradition

    • Government effectiveness

    • Economic growth

    • Ideology

    • Religious Heritage and Organization

  • Devolution: The delegation of power to regional governments that can enhance or weaken legitimacy, creating opportunities for as well as obstacles to resolving social, political, and economic issues.

  • Stability: The ability of a government to consistently provide services that meet the basic needs of most of the population to foster the public's confidence in the institutions of the state.

Unit 2 Political Institutions

  • Legislative Branch (Crafts): Part of the government responsible for writing laws and major policies.

  • Executive Branch (Enforce): Part of the government responsible for implementing laws through the government bureaucracy.

  • Judicial Branch (Interprets): Part of the government responsible for hearing cases and applying and interpreting laws.

  • Head of State: Leader who represents the nation in ceremonial functions; in some governments can also have formal powers to shape foreign policy (e.g., King Charles as head of state, affecting the Commonwealth).

    • President serves as Head of State (President nominates the PM- must be approved by the legislature).

    • Prime Minister serves as Head of Government

  • Parliamentary System: A national legislature has combined lawmaking and executive functions with the powers to select and remove a Prime Minister (who acts as Head of Government) and cabinet (e.g., UK).

  • Presidential System: Separate election processes are used in the selection of the President and the national legislature; the President serves as head of state and head of government who oversees the bureaucratic implementation of executive regulations and laws written by the legislature (e.g., Mexico and Nigeria).

    • Separate fixed terms.

    • Popular elections for the national legislature.

    • Top executive leaders serve both as Head of State and Head of Government.

  • Semi-Presidential System: Separate elections processes are used in the selection of the president and the national legislature; the president serves as head of state and selects the head of government, with the legislature approval, to shape policies and implement the legislature’s laws (e.g., Russia).

  • Fixed-Term Election System: Elections for public office take place on a regular, announced, established date.

  • Executive Bureaucracy: The system of government agencies that implement executive regulations and laws written by the legislature.

  • Question Time: Allows majority members of a legislature to indicate representations of the interests of their constituencies (Districts) and allows the opposition party to verbally challenge the majority party's governance policy making.

  • Executive Cabinet: Top government officials in charge of formulating, implementing, and enforcing policy through different methods and bureaucratic agencies.

  • Commander in Chief: Top government officials in charge of decisions pertaining to the military.

  • Prime Minister: The leader of the national legislature who is also the head of government, in charge of formulating, implementing, and enforcing policy through different methods and bureaucratic agencies.

  • Civil Service: Permanent members of bureaucratic agencies who implement laws and government regulations.

  • Cabinets in each system:

    • Parliamentary: Cabinet is accountable to the PM but held in check and can be removed by the Parliament.

    • Presidential: Cabinet is accountable to the President.

    • Semi-Presidential: Cabinet is accountable to the legislature and the President.

  • Term Limits: Are put in place for how long someone can serve in the positions of President, PM or in legislature and more

    • Advantages:

      • Checks executive power

      • Makes leader focus on doing good for the country

      • Provides opportunities for new leaders with new ideas and policies and goals

    • Disadvantages

      • Forces good leaders out of office

      • Not enough time to get all policies through

      • Create a “Lame-Duck” where they know there term will end and will do nothing

  • Unicameral: Only having one house in charge of decision making like passing laws (single legislative chamber).

  • Bicameral: Having two separate chambers, with each chamber having a role to play, with having lower house and upper house

Unit 3 Political Culture and Participation

  • Civil Society: Voluntary associations independent from the state (e.g., local religion, neighborhood organizations, news media).

    • Provides a space for citizens to be in groups with others in the same common interest.

    • Keeps the government accountable by allowing groups to expose corruption and creates a space for people to speak up when issues arise within a government.

    • Negatives: Can be used by criminals and terrorists; the space and group with the same ideas can lead to violence and create organized crime within a group.

  • Civil Liberty vs. Civil Order:
    *Civil liberty- More freedoms like speech and the ability to protest (Personal rights)
    *Civil order- Laws preventing issues to come and police on the streets (Keeping stability in a society)

  • Freedom of Assembly: The right to get together including in protest, is the most fundamental part of civil liberty.

    • Authoritarian regimes:

      • The groups are more likely to be supervised for what they are doing and have restrictions

    • Democratic regimes:

      • The groups are more free and can speak out for their beliefs and have less restrictions for what they can do
        *Freedom of speech can be shown through protest or rallies

  • Political Culture: The collective attitudes, values, and beliefs. These can be based off of religion, geography, and experience

    • Influencing factors: Geography, religion and traditions, and over history around politics.

    • Forms citizens' political beliefs around a political party or governments.

  • Political Socialization: The lifelong process of acquiring one’s beliefs and values towards the political system.

    • Influenced by family, school, history, media, environment.

    • Social cleavages shape you like the issues you see and the change you want, this forms your political identity.

Ideologies

  • Social values of self-expression and quality of life issues such as environmental issues and social and economic equality

  • Ways citizens attempt to shape the government, this can come through voting

  • Taking part in a election by casting your ballot in the official process or partaking in a political party

  • Individualism: Belief in individual civil liberty and freedom over governmental restrictions.

  • Neoliberalism: Belief in limited governmental control interventions in the economy and society.

  • Communism: Belief in the abolition of private property with near total government control of the economy.

  • Socialism: Belief in the reduction of income disparities and the nationalization of major private industries (e.g., welfare).

  • Fascism: Extreme nationalism ideology that favors authoritarian rule and the rights of the ethnic majority over ethnic minorities and the political opposition (e.g., making laws against ethnic groups).

  • Populism: Political philosophy that supports the interests and rights of the common people over the elites (e.g., applying to the lower man to get more votes looking like they support the underdog).

  • Rule OF Law vs Rule BY law:
    *Rule OF law means everyone is on the same level with the law including those within the government, the laws can not be changed depending on the person they are a set laws (Often use in Demo)
    *Rule BY law means the laws are set but can be changed depending on the person laws can be twisted and it's about having more power over the citizens (Often used in Auth)

  • Post Materialism: Social values of self-expression and quality of life issues such as environmental issues and social and economic equality
    *When you are secure you will can more about issues around you)

  • Political participation: Ways citizens attempt to shape the government, this can come through voting
    *Examples- Voting, discussing politics, attending or watching government meetings, ect..

  • Protests and violence Protests can happen when people hear unheard from the government so having a big movement take part will be more noticed.

  • Formal participation: Taking part in a election by casting your ballot in the official process or partaking in a political party
    Why is it encouraged- Because it gives the citizens a say in what happens or who's chosen it also increase the accountability of the government so the leaders know the citizens chose them and are watching

Referenda

  • Why it's used- To prompt making decisions in a democracy way, also makes citizens decided on difficult choices that needs there say

Informal participation

Social Media

  • Social Media Role: Social media often shows the sides of a government people don't get to see and gives the point of view of the citizen

Civil liberties

  • Civil liberties: Individuals protection against abuse of power by the government (The basic rights and freedom a person has
    *Protections- Laws holding everyone to the same level, free media, and civil societies

  • Define- Is when the government is opened about the decisions they are making rather about policy making, letting the public know that they are working and doing work for the people

Competitive Authoritarian

  • Competitive Authoritarian Characteristics: They will hold elections but they are not free or fair, they have civil liberties but are often overruled by the government (Russia)

Social and political cleavages

Social Cleavages

  • Social Cleavages: Are internal divisions that are structure societies and may be based on class, ethnicity, religion, or territory
    *Conflict-Challenge of conflicting interest and competitions in groups or parties
    *Foreign policy conflicts- Wanting to gain territory or power throughout your country or through other countries, policies with traded

Unit 4 Elections

  • Electoral rules: And the systems with them are put in place to structure more competitive elections and selection of representatives
    *Why- It's so elections can be more competitive between representatives

  • Proportional Representation: Relies on multi member districts that promote multiparty systems. The system can also help promote different genders and races in government roles EX- Mexico percent have to be women
    *Positive- fair representation of seats, more diversity within a government by religion or gender, with these they often lead to high voter turnout
    *Negative- Small parties can gain more power, the government can become unstable because of this multi party system.

  • Plurality: One candidate with the most votes in a district wins the sole representative seat
    Not require to have 50% of the vote

  • Run-off Election: When the election did not result in a majority vote, a candidate must win a majority of the vote or more than 50%
    *How it works- Candidate must win a majority of the vote 1st round or 2nd round of balloting that features the top two vote earners in the first round (c Countries that use it- Russia

  • Majoritarian: 50% + 1 vote- Winning candidate must win a majority of the vote being 50% + least 1 vote
    National mandate- that the candidate has clearly one the majority with seats or votes

  • Electoral Regulatory Organization: Ensures elections are fair and follow the rules.
    *Is a body that oversees and ensures fairness, transparency, and integrity in elections within a country.
    IFE-Mexico has the IFE to regulate there elections INEC- while Nigeria has INEC to regulate there's because there are often corruption within some elections

  • Appointments: The person is selected by the government and not the public, often the people appointed are viewed highly by the person in power and trust there abilities
    Pros- more balance of power because helps prevent a group from having to much power, it can also be used to promote diversity Cons- Lack of democracy, can create distrust with the public with whos being appointed, it's often hard to remove appointed officials from office

  • Proportional: Seats are awarded to parties based on the proportion of votes they receive, not just who gets the most votes.

    • Pros: Gives fairer representation of what people want and creates more diversity.

    • Cons: Weakens direct accountability because there is so many people to point at; sometimes extremist parties can come up with multiple parties being represented.

  • Single member Districts: Voting system where one representative is elected per district to serve in a legislative body.

    • Pros: It gives more local representation with the person and citizens can come to know them, and it has clear winners.

    • Cons: People may feel their vote is wasted when only one can be chosen to represent them, and often smaller parties can be easily overrun by bigger parties.

  • Dominant Party: Elections allow multiple parties to run in elections, but one major party definitely win governing power.

  • Multi-party system: Elections feature more than two parties competing for governing power.

    • Examples- Russia is a dominant party, while in the course countries there isn’t a multi party UK often has two major parties running

  • Catch all parties: Often the dominant party in a dominant party system, can earn support from groups with different characteristics, attracting popular support with ideologically diverse platforms

  • Often the dominant party- earns wide support, tends to support popular, pragmatic policies rather than ideological policies that face significant opposition

  • Voting on party lines: Means voting based on the political party you support, rather than individual people or issues
    Why do they pressure the state- Because the state is the ones who can put forward the change people want, and were often put in place by the citizens so they have more trust towards them

  • These often start small and then grow slowly (Just like grass poking up)

  • Social Movements: Involve a large group of people pushing collectively for significant political or social change

  • Interest Groups: Groups organized to represent and advocate for a specific interest or policy issue

  • Grassroots movements: Exert their power up from the local level to the regional, national, or international level.

  • Pluralist system: Promote competition among autonomous groups not linked to the state

  • Corporatist system: Government controls access to policy making by relying on state sanctioned groups
    *Examples- Promote Indigenous rights, Conduct fair and transparent elections, and ensuring fair treatment of all citizens no matter race, religion or sexuality

Unit 5 Political and Economic changes and development

  • Economic Globalization: Includes economic networks that are growing more interconnected, a worldwide market with actors unconstrained by political borders.

  • Economic Liberalization: State memberships in the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and World Trade organization (WTO) have promoted economic liberalization policies.

  • Multinational Corporations (MNCs): Are businesses with a large presence in countries in different regions of the world (They increasingly dominant the global market)
    Cons-Environmental degradations, Loss of stability in culture Adv-Access to the larger markets-companies can sell globally, Can create economic growth and new development for growing countries
    *(WTO, IMF) WTO have benefits for many countries when joining in a few years the economy are boost by joining (Only country to not be helpful is Russia but could be regime)
    IMF many countries have taken them through their own crisis Nigeria took IMF help during the COVID-19 crisis, Iran did the same but was block by USA

  • Globalization Conflicts: With Neoliberalism it can provoke conflicts within states including increased demands on government by civil society groups, Protest happening which can lead to arresting protesters and putting restrictions on social media
    Examples of the issues i) Income inequality between the wealthy and poor in a country ii) Environmental degradation related to economic development iii) Access to clean water and education

  • Private ownership policies: In response to market forces countries respond to it with experimenting with policies regarding private ownership industry and capital
    Examples i) Special economic zones along the coast of china

  • Government and Global markets: The government response to global markets is to improve domestic economic conditions, respond to domestic demands and control or influence domestic political debates to maintain or increase their own power
    Wanting to maintain there investments and the trade relationship

  • Globalization challenges to sovereignty: Foreign direct investment and multinational corporations from originating regimes- can pose a challenge to a government's foundational economic and political ideas and principles. Cultural influences can affect these too.
    Challenges i) a country becoming more dependent on the global market for the trade and investments and powerful companies can influence national policy

  • Government pressure on foreign offenders: Foreign governments can bring political and economic pressures on countries whose actions (Including human rights violations) offend them

  • Examples i)Treaty reversals, Public condemnation (UN), Economic sanctions, Country: Russia

  • Domestic policy: Governments work to control domestic policy debates and attempt to extend their influences regional to deflect criticism and improve economic conditions

  • Political Economic systems: Through measured through economic development- they use the graphs of GDP and GDP per capita
    *has the goals of remedying undesirable circumstances

  • Economic liberalization policies structural problems within a country, economic growth a country will try to give more privatized business to try to boost GDP increase fossil fuels, over use of global market, inequality

  • Neoliberal economic policies government control within businesses and allowing them to become privatized become individual responsibility
    businesses

  • International corporations (IMF, World Bank) -There financial assistance to countries, reduces dependence on foreign, with nationalized individuals or foreign companies
    deprive

  • Social policies: In response to political, cultural, and economic changes, governments create new social policies

  • Purpose- to keep people equal when it comes to socialization or government positions like Iran not allowing women to come to soccer games or Mexico with gender quotas to have women with in the parliament

  • Social Welfare Policies: Government implement social welfares to both improve citizens lives and maintain or boost legitimacy
    solutions- Reduce population.
    Rapid Industrialization:
    Puts the power for the EU in legislative power

18. Rapid Industrialization

  • Rapid Industrialization The EU puts the power in legislative action for the citizens.
    Solutions: Environment regulations, laws for better energy efficiency for autos

  • Trade Liberalization: process of reducing or eliminating barriers to international trade, such as tariffs, import quotas, subsidies, and regulations, to promote free trade between countries

  • growth and foreign businesses, exchanges rates, population

  • Define Tariffs: Tax on other countries goods yo get a higher profit

  • Define Austerity: Government tries to save money for the country can lead to raise in retirement

  • Population Movements: will move to cities or the area in general.
    to urban areas where people work.

  • Positive Net Migration: the amount of people to leave your home in certain years
    have them put immigration quotas
    to the UK

  • Migration of Consequence: overpopulation
    pressure from high population

Define: Austerity measures

Rentier State
Consequences
Mexico, Nigeria, Russia